The Songs of Ensign Stål/Foreword

The Historical Setting of the War.

Upon the throne of Sweden had come Gustavus IV Adolphus in 1796. Early in life he had shown signs of great promise. He loved order, justice and economy, and strove for the attainment of high ideals. His good qualities were too often misdirected; for he lacked strength, and had some serious faults which revealed themselves the more as years passed. He had not the gifts of a regent; and this proved the more disastrous to his kingdom, since he did not surround himself with influential and trusted advisers. He held tenaciously to personal sentiment and opinion, and was absolutely unwilling to sacrifice them even for the common welfare of his subjects. He hated Napoleon of France; and, tending strongly toward mysticism, believed him the "monster" of Revelation, and himself the re-incarnation of Charles XII of Sweden, divinely charged to conquer and deliver Europe from the "Corsican beast."

Alexander the First held the reins of government in Russia, having come to the throne in 1801. He showed a very active and intelligent interest in all matters of state, internal as well as foreign, but his enthusiasm was quickly cooled by practical difficulties. He sought expansion of ​territory and of power, and often without regard to the interests of others.

France was in a state of upheaval about this time. The revolution, inevitable result of the errors of centuries, had broken out, deposing royalty and embroiling factions in war, till at length the victorious Napoleon Bonaparte, the military and diplomatic genius of France, proclaimed himself emperor in 1804. Napoleon possessed a strong will, well nigh indomitable, power of quick decision and tenacity of purpose. He dreamed of gaining dominion overall Europe; and this, added to his genius and power, made him the terror of Europe in war and diplomacy. Coalitions among the nations to nullify his power were numerous.

The powers in the north,-Sweden, Russia and Denmark, were in combination for the purpose of keeping enemy powers out of the Baltic Sea. These united with England, Austria and Italy in war against Napoleon. Russia, however, after suffering defeat in her struggles with France, broke away from the alliance. An alliance between Alexander and Napoleon was formed at Tilsit in July 1807, and the two emperors forthwith became as close friends as they before had been enemies.

The Cause of the War.

The seed, which brought forth the war of 1808 and 1809 in Finland, was sown at this meeting of the emperors. Napoleon, with his personal influence, captivated Alexander, and soon put him wholly under his power. He convinced him of the great advantages in territorial expansion which an alliance between the two countries would have; and the two emperors practically divided all Europe ​between them at this time. But Alexander's eyes were on Turkey. To turn the emperor away from that direction, Napoleon skillfully directed his attention to Finland, as a necessary acquisition preliminary to the contemplated future conquest of Sweden.

A plan was drawn up, inspired by Napoleon. Russia was to demand of Sweden that she shut out from the Baltic the ships of England,-a demand that Sweden was expected to refuse; whereupon Russia was to declare war on Sweden, take Finland, and march on to Stockholm, Sweden's capital. Simultaneously Sweden was to be invaded in the south by a French army with Danish assistance, and in the west by a Norwegian army. The three armies were to meet at Stockholm. To this plan Alexander readily assented, the more so since Russia for centuries had desired suitable outlets to the sea, and considered the acquisition of Finland as best filling this need. Thus did Napoleon annihilate Russian opposition, and plan for revenge upon his enemy in the north.

The Preparations for the War.

The demand was formally made by Russia, and Sweden immediately refused. Russia demanded that Sweden comply with the treaty relative to closing the Baltic, but Sweden declared the treaty void in consequence of Alexander's treacherous desertion to Napoleon. Negotiations continued, but war was not immediately declared. Neither power really desired war. Alexander hoped, although against hope, that Sweden would accede to the demand. He acted treacherously, but could not withdraw; he was in Napoleon's power, and feared Napoleon's ​strength. Gustavus of Sweden, despite entreaties of Sweden's statesmen to show a conciliatory spirit for the sake of the national welfare, obdurately refused to yield the least in his position. War became inevitable, and broke out in February of 1808.

Russia began preparations for war simultaneously with her demand upon Sweden, and massed all available man-power, approximately 24,000 men, at the Finnish border, taking care all the while greatly to misrepresent and exaggerate her strength. Russia in reality was not very strong, due to the exertions of the three preceding years against France, but the morale of her troops was yet good. With the remainder of her large army, Russia was at the same time engaged in Lithuania and Poland. The Finnish force was placed under Buxhövden, as commander-in-chief, and was divided into three forces along Finland's eastern boundary,-one in the north at Savolaks under Tutschkoff, one in the south under Gertschakoff, and one between these at Kymmene River under Bagration and Kamenski.

Sweden neglected for a long time defensive measures. The king considered it impossible to defend Finland during the winter, and therefore sent only a small force thither, while the bulk of Sweden's army was sent to the southern and western boundaries, to cope with the foes there menacing. The king planned to avoid fighting as much as possible in Finland, to save the army through retreat until spring, and then to retake all territory lost. The Finns themselves, however, were not so calm. The aged Klercker, over seventy years old, commanderin-chief in Finland, proceeded to call Finland's men to ​arms, and in an amazingly short time was successful in bringing together a powerful and determined force, ready to fight and to die for home and beloved native land. Gustavus himself, at length aroused by the apparent greatness and earnestness of the enemy's preparations, hurriedly sent assistance to put the army into fighting condition, sent supplies to replete the stores, and appointed General Klingspor commander-in-chief. In Finland was thus formed an army of 20,000, divided into three divisions, one at the Kymmene River, under Palmfelt, one at St. Mickel in Savolaks under Cronstedt, and one under Adlercreutz in Österbotten, with a small detachment in each of the fortifications, Sveaborg, Svartholm and Hangö.

The War.

At length the struggle began. Without any formal declaration of war, the Russians crossed the border on February 21st, 1808. Buxhövden and his chief of staff, Sprengtporten, accompanied the southern division, which crossed without much difficulty at several places, particularly at Keltis, Anjala and Abborfors.

Almost the first step of the Russian commander was to issue two proclamations,-one to the populace, inviting to a change of allegiance and promising imperial favors in return, and the other to the pastors, promising the same favor with the emperor in return for delivering the people to Russia. The insulting offers were scornfully rejected. A few insignificant skirmishes followed; the cities on the southern coast, Lovisa and Borgå, were easily taken, as was also Helsingfors, where the Russians expected to meet strong opposition. The Finnish troops, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ​far outnumbered by the foe, retreated northward to Tavastehus, ordered to do so by Klercker, commander during Klingspor's leave of absence, who intended massing his men there for a concentrated attack upon the enemy.

When the troops assembled, a council of war was held. Klercker and his noble warriors were for attack; but Klingspor, who had now arrived and taken up the command, urged retreat. The king had ordered him to protect the troops as much as possible, and the cowardly Klingspor thought this could best be done by retreat. No amount of persuasion by either his chief-of-staff, Löwenhjelm, or any one else could change the general's mind, and there was no recourse but to obey his order. Accordingly, on the evening of the 6th of March the retreat began, and the army of about 7,000 men, divided into two divisions, proceeded, one under Palmfelt, which Klingspor himself accompanied to Björneborg and up the coast, and the other under Adlercreutz through Tammerfors and then northward, suffering keenly from privation and the winter's intense cold, but most of all from being compelled to retreat, as though already vanquished, before they had struck a single blow.

The other Russian divisions crossed the border and advanced with as little difficulty, meeting the enemy in only minor encounters. The Finns, under Cronstedt, gave way; and, in obedience to an order from Klingspor, retreated trough Kuopio and Idensalmi to Uleåborg.

The day following Klingspor's departure from Tavastehus, a small company of the enemy reached there, and, needless to say, despised the cowardly foe more than ever. Buxhövden decided to purse, but deemed only ​a small company necessary for the purpose, and sent the rest to besiege the strongholds and to guard Åbo, Åland and Gotland, that Sweden might be prevented from sending reinforcements. Åbo was easily taken on March 22nd. Svartholm fortress, near by, had been betrayed into Russian hands by its faithless commander, and surrendered on the 18th of March. Hangö was conquered. The Russians had 11,000 men in southern Finland, scattered throughout the territory, while the defending forces were small and inadequate. Encouraged by the easy conquest, Buxhövden now wrote to his sovereign, laying Finland at his feet as practically conquered; and Alexander then served notice on the nations of Europe of his intention to annex Finland to Russia. This was the formal declaration of war.

The retreat continued with amazing rapidity. The Russians were bent upon heading off the retreating columns, but failing in this, pursued them closely. By the 25th of March Klingspor's army had reached Wasa and was joined a little later at Nykarleby by Adlercreutz' column. The Savolaks regiment, under Cronstedt, reached Uleåborg about the same time, and soon joined the others at Gamlakarleby. About this time the army, grown larger during the passage with new recruits from among the people, was reorganized into five divisions under the command, respectively, of Palmfelt, Adlercreutz, H. H. Gripenberg, J. A. Cronstedt, and Sandels. The retreat continued, headed for Uleåborg, the first three brigades following the coast, and the other two traveling farther inland, with the Russians following, bent upon driving the enemy out of the country.

​At Pyhäjoki, on the day before Easter, the 16th of April, the Russians attacked the Finns. The latter were winning in the strife that ensued, when Klingspor suddenly put an end to the fight to continue the march northward. No decision was reached; yet this battle had great value for the Swedish side. Löwenhjelm, the chief of staff, became disabled, and Adlercreutz was elevated to the position, a fortunate change; for he would have much greater power over Klingspor than the former chief had. Döbeln was promoted to the command which Adlercreutz had left. The greatest result of the battle, however, was the effect it had on the men. It gave them hope; it showed them that they were able to win victories, and that Finland might yet be rid of enemies. On Easter Sunday the troops were allowed to rest, and the Russians made no attempt to molest the Easter peace. On the following day at sunrise the army continued its retreat toward Uleåborg.

After the first and third brigades had crossed the frozen waters at Siikajoki, the second, Döbeln's brigade of Björneborgians, was about to cross, when he was attacked from the rear. Döbeln had fairly begun to counter-attack, when he received orders to retreat. With no choice but to obey, he left the fight to Adlercreutz, who took on himself the supreme command, as Klingspor was still slinking off in fear to the north. By nightfall a glorious victory had been won, the first real victory on the Swedish side, and the men were in excellent spirits. Now was the time for an offensive blow; yet Klingspor in fear let his troops remain inactive for a whole week. Then at length, prevailed upon by Adler​creutz. he permitted an offensive blow at the Russians in Revolaks. On April 27th Cronstedt, at the head of the main army, marched around to the west of Revolaks, while Adlercreutz himself, at the head of a small company, marched directly upon the enemy at the north, to divert their attention from the main army, and engaged them. Cronstedt, delayed, did not come as soon as expected, and Adlercreutz, overwhelmed in numbers by the enemy, was forced, after some stubborn fighting, to retire. When Cronstedt finally arrived, he greatly surprised the enemies, then complacently gloating over their success, satisfied that their fighting, for the time being, was over. A grand victory for Finnish arms resulted. The Russian commander, Bulatoff, was captured, and heavy losses were inflicted on the enemy. The Russians fled toward Gamlakarleby. The Finns, pursuing for some distance, were ordered then to halt, on account of the bad roads. During the six weeks of spring clemency that followed, 10,000 Finns were encamped in idleness between Brahestad and Gamlakarleby, to the great advantage of the Russians, who received reinforcements during the time.

That the roads during this period were not impassable, and that such obstacles could be overcome, was shown by Sandels and his gallant Savolaks regiment. They had not taken part in the expeditions in the west, but had journeyed eastward to intercept the enemy's reinforcements. A victory was won at Pulkkila on the 2nd of May, and another at Idensalmi on the 6th of May. Then scattering itself in small companies throughout the region, the regiment fell upon group after group bringing stores and munitions to the enemy, took the reinforcements, which ​had been brought thus far only after great difficulty, and took the men captive. Another great victory was won at Kuopio, and the enemy driven out from there.

Sandels' expedition was greatly assisted by the voluntary help of the populace. In fact, through the remainder of the war, and everywhere throughout the land, the people willingly gave their support and assistance to the army. The people of Finland, otherwise so calm and resigned, had become aroused and filled with a warlike spirit. At Kalajoki the populace drove out the Russians, forcing them to retreat to Lochteå, and at Gamlakarleby gave the enemy much trouble. In the south, the Åland Islands were cleansed about the first of May of Russian rule, by the people, under the leadership of Arén, a district-governor, and Gummerus, a pastor, and the soldiery; about 600 men were sent captive to Stockholm.

These successes fanned the sparks of hope, which had been kindled into flames of war-like fervor,-but then came the sad news from Sveaborg, which heavily clouded the bright prospects for the future. Sveaborg had been betrayed into enemy hands. As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the north, withstood the enemy, the Swedish army did not fear the final outcome. The fortress, defended by a large force of men with a sufficient supply of provisions and ammunitions, could not be taken by attack. The Russians knew this, and resorted to treachery. After much negotiation, with misrepresentations, threats and promises, they finally won over the commander, C. O. Cronstedt, who ignominously surrendered the fortress without a struggle on May 3rd, 1808. There is no darker spot in Swedish story than the treacherous ​surrendering of Sveaborg and Svartholm. Needless to say, the sad news cast a gloom over the army in the north.

The Russian defeats in northern Finland caused Buxhövden to send an urgent call to Alexander for reinforcements and to make some important changes. Tutschkoff was recalled from the command, and Rajevsky was appointed in his stead; 11,000 troops were sent from Russia as reinforcements, of which some were sent to strengthen the garrisons along the coast, and the bulk under Barclay de Tolly were turned against Sandels.

The King of Sweden, on the contrary, disregarding the advice of statesmen, sent but few reinforcements, and always in such small detachments as to render them of little real value. A detachment was sent under the command of General Vegesack on the 19 th of June, but after a vain attempt to enter the country, the troops were forced back to their ships. Another was sent on the 25th of June with the same result. A force was sent to Gotland in May, however, which successfully rid that island of the Russian menace. But not until August 28th did Sweden manage to get reinforcements to the field in Finland.

In the beginning of June, Major von Fieandt was sent from the main army in a south-easterly direction to Perrho. Here he won a victory and took large stores. Frightened by the news of this, Rajevsky, encamped at Gamlakarleby with Russia's main army, moved southward to Wasa. Klingspor followed, and defeated, on June 24th, 1808, some Russian troops that had been left behind at Nykarleby. Fieandt meanwhile advanced to Lintulax, a junction of roads, thus making it impossible for the two sections of the Russian army to unite. Klingspor's ​army continued to the south. Adlercreutz won the most important and the most decisive victory of the war at Lappo, on the 14th of July. For his failure here, Rajevsky was removed from his command by the Russians, and Kamenski was substituted. From the main Finnish army Döbeln was despatched to drive the enemy out of southwestern Österbotten, and won a victory on the 10th of August at Kauhajoki, causing the foe to retreat to Björneborg. A few days later, August 17th, Adlercreutz and Cronstedt met the enemy at Alavo and threw them back.

All was going well for the Finns, when the news came that Fieandt had suffered a crushing defeat at Karstula on the 21st of August, and that Lintulax was again in enemy hands. Nothing now could prevent the two sections of the Russian army from closing in on Adlercreutz, wherefore this general retreated to a more advantageous position at Ruona Bridge in Kuortane. Here he was attacked on September first, and, despite the superiority of the enemy in numbers he won a brilliant victory. The next day the enemy renewed the attack at Salmi, whither the Finns had removed, but-in the midst of the battle there came a command from Klingspor to retreat! Disappointed, broken in spirit, and despairing, the gallant army broke up on September 4th 1908, to obey Klingspor's needless and fatal order, and proceeded toward Wasa.

The reinforcements under Vegesack, which came from Sweden in August, won the victories of Lappfjärd on August 29th and Ömossa on September 4th, in which the youthful and courageous Vilhelm von Schwerin won renown, when also they received the order to retreat. They reached the main army at Nykarleby.

​The Russians set out in pursuit of the retreating Klingspor in a double column, one to head off the retreat, and the other to attack from the rear,-a strategy that would have proved the absolute undoing of the Finnish Army, but Döbeln saved the day. Sick in bed at Wasa, learning the plight of the army, he arose in fever, and at the head of his faithful Björneborgians encountered the heading-off army and won the memorable battle at Juutas on September 13th. On the following day, the main army met the pursuing column at Oravais in a bloody but heroic battle of 17 hours, to which the darkness of night put an end before a decision could be reached. Then the retreat was taken up once more, and the exhausted army without ammunition and under untold suffering and privation, wended its way northward.

A truce was declared in Lohteå on the 29th of September, lasting until October 23rd, during which time von Klercker was made commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in Finland, instead of Klingspor, who had been forced to resign. A second truce was sought, and was granted at Olkijoki on November 19th, upon condition that the Swedish army vacate the land entirely. This truce was continued until January 12th, 1809. Between these two periods of rest, Sandels was engaged in a battle. In the face of Barclay de Tolly's troops, Sandels had been forced to retire from Kuopio to Tiovala, but there he succeeded in holding ground in stubborn resistance for several months. Toward the close of September he retreated to Palois, and later to Koljonvirta River near Idensalmi. Here, on October 27th, after the close of the first truce, the enemy attacked him at Virta ​Bridge. Sandels gained another glorious victory; and then, not feeling strong enough to resist longer, he retreated to Uleåborg, arriving there in time to join the main army, and with it to cross the border. A terrible winter of suffering and hardship followed.

As early as November of 1808 a Finnish deputation was held in St. Petersburg, at which Finland declared itself subjected to Russia. Later, toward the end of March, 1809, at the request of this deputation, a diet was held at Borgå, when the Czar of Russia was formally acknowledged as Finland's ruler. A few days earlier, on the 13th of March, Sweden's incapable king, Gustavus IV Adolphus, had been dethroned and exiled.

The war was drawing to a close, but was not yet over. Alexander was intent upon following out his plan to take Stockholm. With this in view, a Russian detachment under Bagration was sent over to the Åland Islands. They drove Döbeln and his troops over to Grisslehamn in Sweden, pursued them over the ice for some distance, and then returned to Åland. At about the same time a Russian force, under the command of Barclay de Tolly, crossed from Wasa in Finland to Umeå in Sweden, and forced J. A. Cronstedt, who was in command there, to surrender, returning to Finland on the 27th of March. Still another Russian force marched westward from Torneå. H. H. Gripenberg, commanding at Kalix, was so terrorized by the advent of the army and the news of Cronstedt's surrender, that he made an ignominous pact with the enemy, to the great chagrin of his noble army, surrendering all stores as far south as Umeå, and promising to lay down arms. From this time on, the war ​was a rather listless combat, with but one noteworthy battle, that at Hörnefors on the 5th of July, 1809.

The negotiations for peace between Russia and Sweden, begun in the meantime, resulted in a peace treaty, drawn up on the 17th of September, 1809, at Fredrikshamn in Finland. According to this treaty, Sweden ceded all Finland to Russia, thus losing more than one-third of all her domain, and a most faithful and devoted part of her population. The Torneå River was fixed as the boundary between Sweden and Finland. Thus came to a close "Finland's latest war," as Runeberg calls this struggle in his immortal "Fänrik Ståls Sägner." The war was fought and lost, but lost not without honor. The page of history that records the war is darkened by blotches of treachery and weakness, the treachery of Sweden's own leaders and the wretchedness of the war's conduct. But these spots are dimmed by the surpassing glory shed upon them by recorded deeds of Finnish heroism and sacrifice for beloved home and native land.

The War in "Fänrik Ståls Sägner."

Briefly, in concluding, let us note, so far as is possible, the place of the two-years' war narrated in Runeberg's immortal songs. Some of the cantos plainly refer to special battles and important events of the war; others are of a more general character, referring to the war in a general way, or to minor incidents not directly connected with the great events of the war.

The following cantos are based on special battles of the war: Adlercreutz (XXXV), and Trosskusken (XXX), pertain to the battle of Siikajoki; ​Fänrikens Hälsning (XXV) refers to the battle of Revolaks; Sveaborg (XVII) and Bröderna (XXXIII) have reference to Sveaborg's surrender; Den Döende Krigaren (IX) to another struggle on the southern coast,—the one at Lemo, near Åbo; Von Törne (XXVI) and No. Femton, Stolt (XXXII) are from the battle of Lappo; while Främlingens Syn (XXIV) is from both the Lemo and Lappo battles; Von Essen (XXIX) and Sven Dufva (VII) refer to the fighting in Savolaks, under Sandels; Otto von Fieandt (X) to the battles at Lintulaks and Karstula, under the major of that name; Veteranen (IV) refers to the struggle at Alavo; Döbeln vid Juutas (XVIII) describes the battle at Juutas; at Oravais the scene is laid for Vilhelm von Schwerin (XXXI), Lotta Svärd (XXII), and Gamle Hurtig (XIII); Virta Bro is the scene of Sandels (XI) and Löjtnant Ziten (V); and Den Femte Juli (XXVII) refers to the last battle of the war, fought on that day in 1809.

Björneborgarnes Marsch (XX), although not to be connected with any special battle, is yet connected with the regiment of Björneborg, commanded by Döbeln. Three of the cantos are biographical of the more important men connected with the war; namely, Konungen (XV), Fältmarskalken (XVI) and Kulneff (XIV).

The general cantos are: Vårt Land (I), Fänrik Stål (II), Molnets Broder (III), Torpflickan (VI), Von Konow och hans Korporal (VIII), De Två Dragonerna (XII), Soldatgossen (XIX), Fänrikens Marknadsminne (XXI), Gamle Lode (XXIII), Munter (XXVIII) and Landshöfdingen (XXXIV).