The New International Encyclopædia/Seven Years’ War
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (1756–63). Primarily a continuation of the contest between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria for the possession of Silesia, this war became of world importance, as in it France and England fought out their struggle for supremacy in North America and in India. All of the great European nations were involved in it. Frederick William I. of Prussia learned before his death in 1740 how fruitless was the traditional Hohenzollern policy of loyalty to the House of Hapsburg. His son, Frederick the Great, adopted a new policy of self-assertion for Prussia. In the first and second Silesian wars, 1740–42 and 1744–45, which formed part of the great European struggle known as the War of the Austrian Succession (see Succession Wars), he won Silesia, upon which the House of Hohenzollern had an old claim. His title to its possession was recognized in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Maria Theresa was bent upon the recovery of Silesia, and France and England had not by any means settled their differences. In 1754 the French and Indian War (q.v.) broke out in America, and in the spring of 1756 England and France were fighting in the Mediterranean. There had been effected, in preparation for a struggle, a new alignment of European alliances. Austria, whose foreign policy was directed by Kaunitz (q.v.), and France, whose King, Louis XV., was under the sway of Madame de Pompadour, had departed from the policy of antagonism which they had maintained for two centuries and had concluded a treaty of alliance at Versailles, May 1, 1756. Ten years before a defensive alliance against Frederick had been arranged between Austria and Russia. Great Britain in case of a European war had common interest with Prussia on account of Hanover, which would be exposed to the attacks of her old enemy, France. She, therefore, entered into an alliance with Prussia. On April 22, 1756, Russia proposed to Austria the partition of the Prussian territories. Frederick, well informed of the plans of his enemies, anticipated their actions, and, after a summary demand on the two powers as to their intentions, on August 29, 1756, invaded Saxony, which he knew to be friendly to Austria.
Frederick threw a column into Bohemia and met the Austrian advance under Browne in an indecisive battle at Lobositz, October 1st. The Saxon army, after a siege of some weeks at Pirna, capitulated on October 16th, and thereafter Saxony was used by Frederick as a base of operations, while her revenues were collected by Prussia. On January 17, 1757, the Diet of the German Empire declared war on Prussia, and in February Austria, Russia, and France completed a new treaty of offensive alliance. Sweden also joined the allies. At this time the English alliance promised little for Prussia, and it was not until Pitt (q.v.) was well established in control of the British foreign affairs that it gave promise of real utility for Frederick. The coalition against Frederick, whose subjects numbered only about 5,000,000, was the most powerful that Europe has ever witnessed. Surrounded by such powerful foes the Prussian King’s policy was to concentrate his attacks and strike rapid and heavy blows. He made his first attack in Bohemia, defeated the Austrians under Charles of Lorraine and Browne before Prague, May 6th, in a desperate battle, laid siege to Prague, but lost the battle of Kolin against the Austrian Marshal Daun (q.v.), June 18th. This compelled the King to retire into Saxony. Meanwhile the French had obtained possession of much of North Germany west of the Elbe, which was defended by an insufficient English and Hanoverian force under the incompetent Duke of Cumberland. The latter retreated before the French, was beaten at Hastenbeck, July 26th, and signed the disgraceful convention of Kloster-Zeven, September 8th, in accordance with which the Hanoverian army was to be dispersed, Hanover being left in the hands of the French. This was a virtual surrender and the English Government repudiated it. Frederick turned next against the French and Imperialists, under the command of Soubise (q.v.), and at Rossbach (q.v.) won one of his most brilliant victories, November 5, 1757. A month later he inflicted a great defeat upon the Austrians under Daun at Leuthen (December 5th). This battle was followed by the surrender of Breslau and Liegnitz. Meanwhile in East Prussia the Prussians under Lehwaldt were defeated at Gross-Jagerndorf by the Russians under Apraxin (August 30th) and East Prussia was overrun. But Pitt had now taken hold of English affairs with a firm grasp and entered upon the fullest coöperation with Prussia. Ferdinand of Brunswick was placed in command of the Hanoverian forces and Frederick’s resources were increased by a liberal subsidy from England.
In 1758 Frederick opened another year of aggressive campaigning. He recaptured Schweidnitz in Silesia, besieged Olmütz unsuccessfully, then turned upon the Russians who had invaded Brandenburg, and defeated them thoroughly at Zorndorf, August 25th. He then moved into Saxony, where he was attacked by Daun at Hochkirch, October 14th, and defeated, though not badly. He then passed around Daun’s army and relieved Upper Silesia, which was in danger of falling into the hands of the Austrians. Prussia, however, was now almost exhausted. Hemmed in by the Russians and Austrians under Soltikoff and Laudon, Frederick met his worst defeat at Kunersdorf (q.v.), near Frankfort-on-the-Oder, on August 12, 1759, where almost his entire army was destroyed or dispersed. On November 21st one of his generals, Finck, was trapped at Maxen in Saxony and compelled to surrender with about 13,000 men. Prussia now seemed to be prostrate. In the west, however, conditions had changed with the change in commanders. Ferdinand of Brunswick signally defeated the French at Crefeld, June 23, 1758, and at Minden, August 1, 1759. The victory of Minden, with the brilliant success of the English against the French in Canada, where they took Quebec, the capture of Guadeloupe, and the naval victory of Admiral Hawke over the French in Quiberon Bay, November 20th, redeemed the year 1759 for the Anglo-Prussian alliance.
After 1759 Frederick fought on the defensive. In 1760 the Prussians were defeated at Landshut, June 23d, and lost Glatz, July 26th. Frederick himself won by hard fighting the battles of Liegnitz, August 15th, over Laudon, and Torgau, November 3d, over Daun, but in the meantime, in October, Berlin itself was raided by Russians and Austrians. In 1760 George III. succeeded to the English throne and in 1761 Pitt went out of office. With Pitt went England’s grand designs. The Government failed to renew the convention with Prussia, which thus lost her one ally. This desertion Frederick never forgave. The death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, January 5, 1762, and the accession of Peter III., Frederick’s ardent admirer, coming at this critical juncture, saved Prussia. The new Czar made an alliance with Frederick and the Russian arms were turned against Austria. Frederick was able to take the initiative again and defeated the Austrians at Burkersdorf, in Silesia, July 21, 1762, and on August 16th defeated Daun at Reichenbach. On October 29th Prince Henry, brother of Frederick, and Seydlitz were victorious at Freiberg. Peter was deposed July 9th by his wife, Catharine II., and the Russian troops were ordered home. Sweden also withdrew from the struggle. At the close of 1762 a truce was concluded between Austria and Prussia, both sides being exhausted.
France had drawn Spain into the struggle with England by the Bourbon family compact of August 5, 1761, which Choiseul had negotiated, and Bute, who had sought peace at any price, found himself compelled to follow tardily the course marked out by Pitt. In 1762 Martinique, Havana, and Manila fell into the hands of the English. The struggle in India was already decided in favor of England. On November 3, 1762, preliminaries of peace were signed at Fontainebleau between England, France, Spain, and Portugal (which had been attacked by the Bourbon coalition), and the definitive Peace of Paris was arranged on February 10, 1763. (See Paris, Treaties of.) Austria and Prussia concluded the Peace of Hubertsburg on February 15, 1763. As Prussia retained Silesia, the war brought no changes territorially in Europe, but it placed Prussia among the Powers of the first rank. Outside of Europe it changed the aspect of the world, bringing about the downfall of France as a colonial Power and preparing the way for the British Empire in India.
Consult: Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years’ War (London, 1888), a reliable and comprehensive brief history; Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great (in several editions); Schäfer, Geschichte des siebenjährigen Krieges (Berlin, 1867–74), the principal history of the war; Von Ranke, Der Ursprung des siebenjährigen Krieges (Leipzig, 1871); Vast, “Guerre de sept ans,” with excellent bibliography, in vol. vii. of Lavisse and Rambaud, Histoire générale (Paris, 1893–1900). See also authorities referred to under Frederick II., Maria Theresa, and Pitt, William.