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degree in reviving the mode of writing similar to that of the classical literature of the Heian period after it had been almost totally disused for so many centuries. For those, therefore, who wish to remodel our written language on the same lines as the spoken language these works will come to be taken into greater consideration.

There is one more important kind of literature which deserves our attention. It is the popular drama. In speaking of dramas it is necessary to speak first of the books relating to them. There are numerous books under the categorical name of ‘Joruri-bon’ or ‘Gidayu-bon.’ They are books containing not only the dialogue, but are also descriptive of the scenes concerned. They are written in such a way as to resemble a novel, but, of course, in a shorter form, and in such euphonic diction as may be sung. They were originally written for marionette theatres, experienced singers singing the lines at the corner of the stage, while the marionettes were being worked with realistic effect on the stage concurrently with the singing. They could also be sung without the marionettes, and therefore the singing of them is widely studied and practised by even men and women of the higher classes. They can also be adapted to the ordinary stage, perhaps with a little modification of the dialogue, to more fully conform to the movements of the actors. Ordinary theatres also grew up almost simultaneously, but their development was a little slower. There were professional playwrights connected with the stage, and plays were written by them which were much like the ‘Joruri-bon,’ but naturally with less chorus and more dialogue. These plays thus written specially for the ordinary theatres, however, were far less elaborate, and, as literature, had little value; in fact, none of them was even printed until a very recent date. I may here just remark, in passing, that most foreigners think there are no actresses in Japan, but it is not true. At the beginning of theatrical performances, some 300 years ago, actors and actresses played together, but after a time this was for some reason or other prohibited. In later times also there were many actresses, though not so many as there were actors, the actors and actresses formed their own companies separately, and each performed independently. In the actors’ companies some of them, as on the Western stages of the olden times, played feminine parts; and in the actresses’ companies some of them played the parts of men, both with admirable success. Occasionally they act together on the same stage, but it is very rare and exceptional. The tendency, however, is towards some fusion of interests, and they will, perhaps, before long be seen together more commonly.

Both the ordinary stage and the marionettes were originally