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all towards fighting, began to study books; in the case of private schools many aspirants among the commoners also betook themselves to study. There was a set of learned people whose business it was to study, to read, to write, and to teach. These were mainly Chinese scholars, their chief work being to expound the Confucian doctrine; they were called the Ziusha, and commanded high respect. In the beginning of the period they were classed with priests or physicians, but as time went on it was thought that this classification was not sufficient for them. They must be regarded as something higher, and they were given comparatively high places among the Samurai, their occupations not being considered as professions. This was, of course, where the teachers were engaged in the official schools, but a similar kind of respect was also accorded to the masters of private schools. It was these learned people who wrote vast numbers of books on different subjects, more especially based upon the Chinese ideas of the classical period, but mostly in such a way as to make them more suitable to the conditions of the hour in our country. Many improvements were also made. These ideas, blended together with the chivalric code of honour of native growth, went a long way in forming the moral aspects of the Japanese character. There was also another movement which took place at this period. It was the revival of the study of Japanese ancient literature and the resuscitation of the ancient spirit of the Imperial régime preceding the introduction of the feudal system. This has also gone a long way towards forming the national character of the Japanese, side by side with those agencies described above. Teachers belonging to this category have also written many books, especially on the interpretation of the ancient vernacular language, and the exposition of the ancient Japanese books and classical literature. These were then the more serious and elevated sides of our literature of the period, but there was also a popular side—I refer to works of fiction, including romances, novels, and dramas.

The works of fiction of this period had their origin in a somewhat similar manner to the popular school of paintings (Ukiyoye), which took root in opposition to the pictures of the older and more conventional style. They were truly things for the people, and not for the aristocracy. The serious side of our literature of the period was almost the monopoly of the higher classes. The common people had no access to or liking for it, except those who had been favoured with better chances or higher aspirations than their neighbours. And yet they began to feel a kind of longing for novelty, and this was utilized by some clever popular writers. The readers were such,