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eternally in darkness and gloom; and as wholly evil without goodness,^[1] as the prime source of evil in the world,^[2] and as the producer of sin.^[3] Though it is possible for Ormazd to drive him out of the world, it is not thought necessary to do so now until the end of time, when Ormazd has determined his final defeat.^[4]

Ahriman is a spirit. As the very name of the arch-fiend indicates, he is a spirit, and as such can be thought of in the mind, but cannot be seen by the eye or grasped by the hand. Having no material existence, even the wicked souls, who are domiciled with him in hell, can only understand his nature but cannot see him.^[5] The sainted priest Viraf, however, in his apocalyptic journey to hell sees him in the inferno.^[6] In the beginning of creation he sprang like a snake from the sky to the earth,^[7] and rushed upon the entire creation like a fly.^[8] In one Pahlavi passage he is mentioned as possessing the body of a lizard,^[9] though he could for his vile purposes assume the pleasing shape of a young man, as noted in the same connection. In allegorical references he is spoken of as assuming the form of a horse when subjugated by Tahmuras.^[10]

Ahriman has backward knowledge. When the Evil Spirit defies Ormazd, the latter reminds him that he is not omniscient;^[11] and does not, therefore, foresee his own final defeat.^[12] In fact he has only after-knowledge, and knows no event that is to come. He was not even aware of the existence of Ormazd, until he arose from the abyss;^[13] thus, though cunning, he is totally ignorant and blind.^[14] He cannot attain to any knowledge pertaining to the Good Spirit,^[15] and does not make any preparations to avert his coming downfall.^[16] What scanty knowledge he possesses is evil and he will see the consequences of his ignorance at the time