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may be suspected of being artificially adjusted. The number 2½ to 3 millions may indeed be taken as a maximum; the population can hardly ever have been more than four times its present strength, which is estimated at 650,000 souls. Thus, in the most flourishing period, about 250 to 300 inhabitants would go to the square mile, while at present there may be about 65, a number which is rather above than below the mark. Lists based on information collected by the Turkish Government give much lower figures, viz., for the sanjak of Jerusalem (with the districts Jerusalem, Yáfá, Hebron), 276 places with about 24,000 houses (families); for the sanjak Belḳa (with the districts of Nábulus, Jennín, Ajlún, and Es-Salṭ), 317 places and 18,984 houses; for the sanjak 'Akka (Acre) (with the districts 'Akka, Ḥaifa, and Safed), 160 places with 11,023 houses,—making a total of 753 places with 54,237 houses. Reckoning five persons per house, this gives a population of 271,185, exclusive of the small number of Bedouins. Detailed statistics there are none as regards the relative strength of the Bedouin element and the peasantry, the numerical representation of the different religions, or any matter of this sort.
The ethnographico-geographical sketch given above has shown how the population of Palestine even at an early date was a very mingled one; for even when they arrived in the country foreign elements were present among the Israelites, and later on they absorbed or were absorbed by the Canaanites. The Philistines, Moabites, and others in course of time were merged in the new nationality. From the period of the exile colonies from the east settled in the country, and so powerful did the Aramæan contingent gradually grow that Aramæan became the popular tongue. Next were added Greek and Roman colonies. The Arabic element exerted considerable influence even before the days of Islam; with the Mohammedan conquest it became the dominant power, though it was only by slow degrees that it obtained numerical superiority. The Arab tribes transplanted to Palestine their old distinctions, especially that between Northern and Southern Arabs (Ḳais and Yemen; cf. Arabia). The Arab peasantry is still divided into clans; for example, the districts of the Beni Hasan and Beni Malik to the west of Jerusalem, those of the Beni Hárith, Beni Zeid, and Beni Múrra to the north, and that of Beni Sálim to the east. Till recently the relations of the separate clans of fellahin was one of mutual hostility, and, unhindered by the Turkish Government, they engaged in sanguinary conflicts. In manners and in language (though Arabic is universally in vogue) the Palestine peasants retain much that is ancient. It is extravagant, however, to maintain from the traditions they preserve that primeval Canaanite elements still exist among them. The prevalent type, in fact, is Syro-Arabic, or in many districts pure Arabic; and their superstitious customs are partly remains of Syrian beliefs, partly modern Arabic reproductions, under similar external conditions, of ancient superstitions. These remarks are applicable to the saint worship at present spread through the whole Oriental world. The fellahin are on the whole a diligent frugal race, not destitute of intelligence. If well treated by a just Government which would protect them from the extortions of the nomadic tribes, they would be the means, with the assistance of the capitalist, of greatly improving the cultivation of the country, especially in the various lowland districts. They choose their own village sheiks, who derive most of their authority from the reputation of their virtues, their bravery, and their liberality. The Bedouins, i.e., wandering tribes of pure Arab origin, also play an important part in the country. Till quite recently they used to visit certain settled districts and exact black mail from the peasants; and they find their undisputed domain in those districts which are incapable of cultivation, and fit only for cattle rearing, and in other fertile portions which for various reasons are not occupied by the husbandman. To the first class belong the belt of desert to the west of the Dead Sea, the southernmost parts of the country west of Jordan and the south country beyond the river (Moab); to the second belong the greater portion of the maritime plain, the depression of the Jordan valley, and part of the country to the east. The divisions of the Arab tribes will be discussed in the article Syria. In Palestine east of Jordan the Beni Sakhr (Moab) are of most importance; Jebel 'Ajlún is the seat of the 'Adwán. The Ghawárine (the inhabitants of the Ghor or Jordan depression) form a peculiar race which, as they are partly agricultural, have been a long time settled in the district. In type, as well as by their degeneracy, they are distinguished from the other Bedouins. The true Bedouin style of life can be studied only beyond the Jordan or to the south of Palestine,—the tribes west of the river, such as the Ta'ámire and Jehalín in the south being all more or less deteriorated. As the Turkish race does not fall to be treated in connexion with Palestine, it simply remains to mention the Frankish (European) elements. During the Middle Ages these were not unimportant, especially along the coast; numerous ruined churches are still to be seen as the last and only memorials of crusaders colonies (see Vogüé, Les églises de la Terre Sainte, Paris, 1860, and the article Syria). Nor must the missionary efforts be forgotten which in our own times have been again specially directed to Palestine. As regards the Roman Catholic Church, the Franciscans have maintained their position in the Holy Land even in troublous times, and have not only established schools and printing presses but protected the Christian sanctuaries and taken care of pilgrims and travellers. On the whole it may be said that, in comparison with that of the Roman and Greek Churches, the influence of Protestants is outwardly small. A German sect called the Templars settled in Palestine some years ago, and has now colonies at Yáfá, Sarona, Jerusalem, and Ḥaifa. The colonists, about 1000 in number, have to contend with many and grievous difficulties, and are deficient in capital. Wine-growing is the most lucrative branch of their activity. As long as the Turks hold rule over the country successful colonization is hardly possible.
Literature.—The literature in regard to Palestine is extremely abundant. As bibliographical guides of the first class may be mentioned—Tobler, Bibliographia geographica Palæstintæ, Leipsic, 1869 (a supplement to this appeared in Petzholdt's Neuer Anzeiger für Bibliogr. und Bibliothekwissenschaft, Dresden, 1875). The works published between 1867–77 (with additions to Tobler) will be found in Röhricht and Meisner's Deutsche Pilgerreisen nach dem Heiligen Lande, Berlin, 1880 (pp. 547–648). Socin has given an annual survey of current literature from 1877 in the Zeitschr. des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins. Compare also Archives de l'Orient Latin, i., Paris, 1881. The series of old pilgrimages published by the Société de l'Orient Latin deserves special mention:—Itinera Latina bellis sacris anteriora, Geneva, 1879; Itinéraires a Jérusalem et descriptions de la Terre Sainte red. en français aux XI–XIII siècles, Geneva, 1882. Older studies on the geography of Palestine are Eusebius, Onomasticon urbium et locorum Sanctæ Scripturæ (edited by Larsow and Parthey, 1802, and (illegible text) Lagarde, 1870); Neubauer, La géographie du Talmud, Paris, 1808; Hadr. Reland, Palæstina monumentis veteribus illutstrata, 2 vols., 1714; Ritter, Vergleichende Erdkunde, vol. xv.–xvii., Berlin, 1850–55; K. Raumer, Palästina (4th ed., 1860; now to be completely remodelled by Furrer). Strictly scientific accounts of travel begin only in the present century; the credit of having led the way belongs to E. Robinson (Biblical Researches in Paletine, 1841; Later Biblical Researches, 1856; Physical Geography, 1865). Of importance is the voluminous work of V. Guérin, Description géographique, historique, et archéologique de la Palestine, 1868, sq. Splendid service has been rendered by the Palestine Exploration Fund, which has published Quarterly Statements since 1869,—the labours of Wilson, Warren, and Conder being particularly noteworthy. In 1880 appeared Condor and Kitchener's Map of Western Palestine (26 sheets), the result of surveys extending over many years; an edition in six sheets was published in London in 1881. Trelawney Saunders's Special Edition illustrating the Divisions and the Mountain Ranges, 1882, is to be recommended (compare his valuable Introduction to the Survey of Western Palestine—its Waterways, Plains, and Highlands, 1881); but the same cannot be said about the Special Edition of the map illustrating the Old Testament and that illustrating the New Testament, London, 1882 (each six sheets), many of the identifications resting on mere provisional conjecture. As companions to the great maps we have Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archæology (3 vols.), a Name-List (1 vol.), Special Papers (reprinted from the Statements, 1 vol.), Jerusalem (1 vol.), Flora and Fauna (1 vol.). The Exploration Fund is preparing to accomplish a similar work for the country east of Jordan, since the American Society, which was to have undertaken the survey of that region, has relinquished the undertaking (compare also Selah Merrill, East of the Jordan, New York, 1881). The German Pälastina-Verein has published its Zeitschrift since 1878, a yearly volume of topographical and historical investigations on definite points. Guide-books which may partly serve as works of reference are—Baedeker's Palestine and Syria (written by Socin, 1876), Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine (by Porter, 1875), and Joanne's Guide (new edition, 1882). The best illustrated work is Picturesque Palestine, Syria, and Egypt (edited by Colonel Wilson, &c., London, 1881), to which may be added D. Roberts, The Holy Land, and Lortet, La Syrie d'aujourd'hui, 1884. W. M. Thomson's The Land and the Book, London, 1881–83, is of particular value for manners and customs. For natural history, see Tristram, The Land of Israel (London, 1861) and Natural History of the Bible (London, 1873). Lartet’s geological investigations will be found in De Luynes, Voy. d'exploration à la Mer Morte, &c., Paris, 1876. For matter of geographical detail consult especially Tobler's works (Bethlehem; Nazareth; Dritte Wanderung, &c.). Wilson, The Lands of the Bible, Edinburgh, 1847; Conder, Tent Work in Palestine, 1878; and Finn, Byeways in Palestine, London, 1868, may conclude the list. Menke's Historischer Atlas (Gotha, 1868) is still the best.(A. SO.)
Palestrina. See Præneste.
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (c. 1524–1594), now universally distinguished by the honourable title Princeps Musicæ, occupies a more important position in the history of art than any other composer, ancient or modern; for it is to his transcendent genius that music is indebted for its emancipation from pedantic trammels, which, ignoring beauty as its most necessary element, were fast tending to reduce it to the level of an arithmetical problem.
The exact date of Palestrina's birth is unrecorded. It most probably took place in 1524, and certainly at Palestrina (the Præneste of Roman geographers,—whence the style accorded to him in Latin[1]). Some early writers call him Gianetto da Palestina, or simply Gianetto; and this early custom—which has led some modern critics to mistake his identity—combined with the general use of his Christian names only, has induced the belief that he was of peasant origin; but Signor Cicerchia is said to have discovered at Palestrina documents proving that bis father bore the family name of Sante, and his mother that of Gismondi,—in which case he must have been of gentle birth. The statement, however, needs confirmation.
- ↑ Joannes Petrus Aloysius (or Petraloysius) Prænestinus.