Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/611

Khan, founder of the Yuen dynasty in China, had for some years back repeatedly sent to demand submission from Japan, but, this being refused, about 10,000 of his troops attacked Tsushima and Oki in 1274. This expedition was repulsed, and some envoys despatched to Japan in 1275 and also in 1279 were decapitated by the regent, Hôjô no Tokimuné. Exasperated at this defiance, the Mongol chief collected a mighty armament, which was despatched to Japan in 1281. The numbers of this invading force are by Japanese writers estimated at no less than one hundred thousand Chinese, Mongol, and Corean troops. They descended upon the coast of Kiushiu, where several engagements fought; eventually a severe storm destroyed and dispersed the fleet, and the Japanese taking advantage of this favourable opportunity vigorously attacked and completely annihilated the invaders, of whom but three are said to have escaped to tell the tale. It is not surprising that no further attempt to conquer Japan should have been made by the Mongols. Two courts.In 1331, towards the close of the Hôjô supremacy, the succession to the crown was disputed, and from that time until 1392 there existed two courts, known as the northern and the southern; in the latter year, however, the southern dynasty (established at the town of Nara, near Kiôto) handed over the regalia to the emperor Go-Komatsu, who from that time was recognized as the legitimate mikado. During the period of anarchy and civil war that took place in this century, Kamakura was attacked and destroyed, in 1333, by Nitta Yoshisada, head of a family descended from the Minamoto clan. The rule of the Hôjôs was thus terminated, and by 1338 the family had well nigh disappeared.

During the confusion and disturbance created by the contest between the rival courts, and also throughout the whole of the 15th century, Japan was devastated by fire and sword in civil wars of the most terrible description. Several families endeavoured in succession to acquire the supremacy, but none were able to wield it long. The dynasty of shôgun (the Ashikaga line) proved bad rulers, and, though the families of Nitta, Uyésugi, and others came prominently into notice, they were unable to pacify the whole empire. Later Hôjô family.In the early part of the 16th century what was termed the “later Hôjô” family arose in the Kuantô, and for “four generations” established their chief seat at the town of Odawara, in the province of Sagami, immediately to the east of the Hakoné hills. At this time, too, lived the famous generals Ota Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hidéyoshi. Hidéyoshi.The latter is perhaps best known to Europeans as the Taikô Hidéyoshi, or simply as Taikô-sama, “my lord the Taikô.” Taikô, it may here be remarked, is not a name (as commonly supposed) but a title, and signifies literally “great lord.” Another common error is to speak of Hidéyoshi as the shôgun; he never held that office. The 16th century also saw the first persecutions directed against the native Christians; the religion had been introduced by the Portuguese in 1549, when Xavier first came to Japan. In 1586 Ota Nobunaga was assassinated, and the taikô succeeded him in the chief military power. In 1590 the family of the “later Hôjô” was overthrown by him, and the town of Odawara taken. Hidéyoshi then bestowed upon his general Tokugawa Iyéyasu the eight provinces of the Kuantô, at the same time directing him to take up his residence at Yedo, which was at that period a town of very small importance. Hidéyoshi died in 1594.

Tokugawa dynasty.The Tokugawa dynasty lasted from the Iyéyasu to the office of shôgun in 1603 until the resignation of the last shôgun, Yoshinobu (usually called Keiki), in 1867. This dynasty comprised fifteen generations of the family, and is undoubtedly the most important throughout the whole of Japanese history. Iyéyasu.Iyéyasu was a consummate politician as well as a successful general, and to him the powerful territorial nobles (daimiô) throughout the whole country speedily submitted, some from motives of personal interest, and others under compulsion after a crowning victory obtained over them by the Tokugawa at Sékigahara, on the confines of the provinces of Mino and Ômi, in 1600. This famous battle completely established the supremacy of Iyéyasu, and his rule was gladly accepted by the country as putting an end to the scenes of bloodshed and anarchy from which all classes had so severely suffered for well nigh two centuries back. Under this dynasty of shôgun Yedo became a large and populous city, as the presence of their court gave a grand impetus to trade and manufactures of all kinds. Nobles.The attendants of the mikado at Kiôto were the old kugé, or court nobles, descended from cadet branches of the imperial line; they were, as a rule, of anything but ample means, yet their rank and prestige received full recognition from all classes. The court of the shôgun at Yedo was, on the contrary, mainly composed of men who were more noted for their territorial possessions and influence than for ancient lineage, for skill in warlike accomplishments rather than in literature and art. This court of Yedo was formed from the territorial nobles (daimiô), the petty nobility of the Tokugawa clan (called hatamoto), and lower attendants, &c., known as goké-nin. The hatamoto were originally no less than 80,000 in number, and were in fact the soldiers composing the victorious army of Iyéyasu and ennobled by him; they resided continuously in Yedo, very rarely even visiting their country fiefs. The daimiô, on the other hand, were forced to attend in Yedo only at certain stated intervals varying considerably in different cases, and spent the rest of their time at their castle-towns in the provinces,—their wives and daughters remaining behind in Yedo, virtually as hostages for the good behaviour of the heads of their respective clans. The feudal system was thus introduced by Iyéyasu, but he was too wary to force his yoke in a precipitate manner upon the great nobles. He gathered around him his own immediate adherents, upon whom he conferred the more important positions of trust (notably in regard to the garrisoning of a cordon of minor strongholds around his own castle at Yedo); and as the power of his clan became more and more firmly established he was enabled more effectively to impose terms and restrictions upon the daimiô. It was, however, reserved for his grandson Iyémitsu (1623–1650) to complete the system thus inaugurated: by the latter the nobles were treated solely as feudal vassals, and many very stringent regulations for their guidance and direction were put into force. A similar course was adopted by the successors of Iyémitsu, and this system prevailed until the fall of the Tokugawa dynasty in 1868. Under their rule, however, Japan enjoyed the benefit of almost uninterrupted peace for more than two hundred and fifty years; and though the burden imposed by them grew in the end too heavy to be longer borne, it was only cast off after fifteen members of the clan had in turn succeeded to the chieftainship. Instead of being, as of old, one united empire acknowledging as its sovereign the mikado alone, Japan was now portioned out into numerous fiefs, in many ways resembling petty kingdoms. Han system.Each fief or territory was ruled by a han or clan of which the daimiô was the chief, assisted by hereditary karô, or “councillors,” and other officials. According to the will of each daimiô did the usages and rules to be observed in the respective fiefs differ. Districts actually adjacent to each other might be placed under totally opposite regulations, both as regards taxes and imposts and with respect to the paper money there in circulation. The various han issued notes of different denominations, for use in that one district alone, and this was done without the slightest reference to the paper currency of neighbouring fiefs. The permission of the shôgun’s ministers at Yedo had to be obtained for the purpose, but it is beyond all doubt that large quantities of paper money were issued by the han, when pressed by want of funds, without any such authority. The chief evil was that these notes were only local currency, and did not pass freely throughout the whole country; thus a person undertaking a long journey might be put to considerable inconvenience as soon as he crossed the boundary of his own clan’s territory. The levying of taxes, too, afforded opportunities for frequent abuse of power: in many han, it is certain, taxes were collected with due regard to the condition of the peasantry, but in other instances cruel oppression and ruthless extortion were but too prevalent. This, as had already been remarked, was chiefly the case on the estates of the hatamoto, who enjoyed a life of ease and pleasure in Yedo, and who cared little or nothing as to the means by which their supplies were wrung from their miserable serfs. Some of the daimiô ruled very large territories,—often a whole province or even more; while others, again, owned an estate measuring but a few square miles. The military class, or gentry, who were entitled to wear two swords as a sign of gentle birth, formed the retainers or clansmen of the great nobles, and were recognized as the first of the “four classes” into which the whole populations was divided. The four classes.These classes were—(1) the military families, commonly known as the samurai; (2) the agricultural or farming population; (3) the artisans; and (4) the mercantile or trading class. But, though by this arrangement the peasants were placed immediately after the gentry, their lot was undoubtedly far harder than that of the artisans or traders, seeing that they were at the mercy of any capricious or tyrannical feudal noble who might be made lord over the villages in which they dwelt. There existed a small number of independent yeomen (called gôshi) who owned no allegiance to any chieftain; but they were also included in the second of the “four classes.” The succession to the shôgunate was vested in the head branch of the Tokugawa clan, but, in the event of a direct heir failing, it was determined that the dignity and office should pass to one of the three kindred clans of Mito, Owari, and Kishiu, or, failing these, to one of the three noble families of Tayasu, Shimidzu, and Hitotsubashi. These two lines of kinsmen of the shôgun’s house were termed the go-san-ké and the go-san-kiô respectively. The ceremonial of investiture of each shôgun by the mikado was always kept up, the latter being thus still recognized as the sovereign, although there only remained to him the title without the power. The shôgun was, in fact, nothing more nor less than the chief subject of the mikado. The chief power and the direction of political affairs were certainly in his hands, but the name of sovereign was never even assumed by him; and in point of actual rank the mighty territorial chieftains were held to be inferior to the poverty-stricken nobles of the mikado’s court.

Persecutions of Christians.The earlier period of the Tokugawa supremacy was disgraced by violent persecution of the native Christians. By an edict issued in 1614 by Iyéyasu (who has resigned in 1605 in favour of his son Hidétada, but still continued to exercise administrative functions)