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description of a vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille (1750–1824) produced an equally delightful poem in the Amours de Mounpëié. Pierre Hellies of Toulouse (d. 1724) a poet of the people, whose vicious life finds an echo in his works, has a certain rude charm, at times distantly recalling Villon. In the Province Toussaint Gros (1698–1748), of Lyons, holds undisputed sway. His style and language are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on trivial pièces d’occasion. Coye’s (1711–1777) comedy, the Fiancé paré, is bright and still popular, while Germain’s description of a visit paid by the ancient gods to Marseilles (La Bourrido dei Dious, 1760) has considerable humour. In Gascony the greatest poet is Cyrien Despourrins (1698–1755), whose pastoral idylls and mournful chansons, which he himself set to music, are imbued with tenderness and charm (most of them were collected at Pau, in 1828).

The Revolution produced a large body of literature, but nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave an impetus to thought in the south of France, as elsewhere; and there, as elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independence that was all in favour of a literary revival. Scholars of the stamp of Raynouard (1761–1863), of Aix, occupied themselves with the brilliant literary traditions of the middle ages; newspapers sprang up (the Provençal Bouil-Abaisso, started by Désanat, and the bilingual Lou Tambourin et le menestrel, edited by Bellot, both in 1841); poets banded together and collected their pieces in volume form (thus, the nine troubaire who published Lou Bouquet prouvençaou in 1823). Much has been written about the précurseurs de Félibrige, and critics are sorely at variance as to the writers that most deserve this appellation. We shall not go far wrong if we include in the list Hyacinthe Morel (1756–1829), of Avignon, whose collection of poems, Lou Saboulet, has been republished by Mistral; Louis Aubanel (1758–1842), of Nîmes, the successful translator of Anacreon’s Odes; Auguste Tandon, “the troubadour of Montpellier,” who wrote Fables, contes et autres pièces en vers (1800); Fabre d’Olivet (1767–1825), the versatile litterateur who in 1803 published Le Troubadour: Poésies occitaniques, which, in order to secure their success, he gave out as the work of some medieval poet Diouloufet (1771–1840), who wrote a didactic poem, in the manner of Virgil, relating to silkworm-breeding (Leis magnans); Jacques Azais (1778–1856), author of satires, fables, &c.; D’Astros (1780–1863), a writer of fables in Lafontaine’s manner; Castil-Blaze (1784–1857), who found time, amidst his musical pursuits, to compose Provençal poems, intended to be set to music; the Marquis de Fare-Alais (1791–1846), author of some light satirical tales (Las Castagnados). While these writers were all more or less academic, and appealed to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a far wider public: Verdié (1779–1820), of Bordeaux, who wrote comic and satirical pieces; Jean Reboul (1796–1864), the baker of Nîmes, who never surpassed his first effort, L’Ange et l’enfant (1828);^[1] Victor Gelu (1806–1885), relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of his kind (Fenian et Grouman; dix chansons provençales, 1840); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged forerunner of the félibres, Jacques Jasmin (1798–1864), the hairdresser of Agen, whose poems, both lyrical and narrative, continue to find favour with men of the highest culture and literary attainments, as with the villagers for whom they were primarily intended.

While much of this literature was still in the making, an event took place which was destined to eclipse in importance any that had gone before. In 1845 Joseph Roumanille (1818–1891), a gardener’s son, of Saint-Remy (Bouches-du-Rhône), became usher in a small school at Avignon, which was attended by Frédéric Mistral (q.v.), a native of the same district, then fifteen years of age. The former, feeling the germs of poetry within him, had composed some pieces in French; but, finding that his old mother could not understand them, he was greatly distressed, and determined thenceforth to write in his native dialect only. These poems revealed a new world to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve that became the one purpose of his life—de remettre en lumière et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race qu’en plain ’89 Mirabeau nomme encore la nation provençale. There is no doubt that Mistral’s is the more puissant personality, and that his finest work towers above that of his fellows; but in studying the Provençal renaissance, Roumanille’s great claims should not be overlooked, and they have never been put forward with more force than by Mistral himself (in the preface to his Isclos d’oro). Roumanille’s secular verse cannot fail to appeal to every lover of pure and sincere poetry (Li Margaritedo, 1836–1847; Li Sounjarello, 1852; Li Flour de Sauvi, 1850–1859, &c.), his noëls are second only to those of Saboly, his prose works (such as Lou mege de Cucugnan, 1863) sparkling with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 collected and published Li Prouvençalo, an anthology in which all the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In 1853 he was one of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round J. B. Gaut at Aix, and whose literary output is contained in the Roumavagi dei Troubaire and in the shortlived journal Lou gay saber (1854). At the same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography of Provençal was made by him (in the introduction to his play, La Part dou bon Dieu, 1853). And in 1854 he was one of the seven poets who, on the 21st of May, foregathered at the castle of Fontségugne, near Avignon, and founded the Félibrige. [The etymology of this word has given rise to much speculation: the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral came across it in an old Provençal poem, which tells how the Virgin meets Jesus in the Temple, among the seven félibres of the law. The outlines of the constitution, as finally settled in 1876, are as follows: The region of the Félibrige is divided into four mantenenço (Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine and Catalonia^[2]). At the head of all is a consistori of fifty (called majourau), presided over by the Capouliè, who is chief of the entire Félibrige. The head of each mantenenço is called sendi (who is at the same time a majourau); and at the head of each “school” (as the subdivisions of the mantenenço are called) is a cabiscòu. The ordinary members, unlimited in number, are mantenèire. Annual meetings and fétes are organized. The most widely read of the Félibrige publications is the Armana prouvençau, which has appeared annually since 1855, maintaining all the while its original scope and purpose; and though unpretentious in form, it contains much of the best work of the school.^[3]] The other six were Mistral, Aubanel, A. Mathieu (a schoolfellow of Mistral’s at Avignon), E. Garcin, A. Tavan and P. Giera (owner of the castle). Of these, Théodore Aubanel (1829–1886, of Avignon, son of a printer and following the same calling) has alone proved himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille. “Zani,” the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow over his whole life, and determined the character of all his poetry (Lou miéugrano entre-duberto, 1860; Li Fiho d’Avignoun, 1883). His is, without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament among the félibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. He has a keen sense of physical beauty in woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but he never sinks to sensuality. His powerful love drama Lou pau dou peccat was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in 1878, and successfully produced (some years later in Aréne’s version) by Antoine at his Théâtre Libre—no mean criterion. It is the only play of real consequence that the school has yet produced.

We need not do more than glance at the work of the fourth of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence