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in Chinese eyes—of keeping the lawless and masterful foreigner at arm's length by interposing the Hong Merchants between him and even local officialdom.

These edicts were quietly, not to say contemptuously, ignored. British statesmen saw no occasion to treat China with the courtesy observed in relations between Occidental Powers. They would not for a moment have entertained the notion of sending a consular official, much less a semi-diplomatic representative, to an European country without previously seeking the concurrence of its government. But in China's case no such routine seemed necessary. They would not for a moment have claimed for their nationals exemption from the jurisdiction of an European country without, at the same time, discharging the responsibility of providing some efficient substitute for that jurisdiction. Yet in China's case they were content that a number of their people should reside on her shores and there carry on a trade already marked by repeated acts of lawlessness and violence, without the existence of any recognised British authority to whom the Chinese officials might appeal for redress against wrong, or for assistance in restraining turbulence. It is true that Great Britain's irregular attempts to open relations with the Canton officials elicited an insulting and exasperating rejoinder on China's part, and led ultimately to the employment of harsh and humiliating measures. It is also true