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INTRODUCTION
ix

and assume the right of individual interpretation, but to recognize the supremacy of religion itself.

(iii) To deny the supremacy of religion as a prime determinant of laws, manners, life, etc.

The first process asks neither for individual interpretation, nor for the independence of politics against religion, but only demands a division in the Church to remove the subjection of a State or political unit to an organization whose head stays somewhere beyond the confines of the State.

The second process admits the superiority of religion to politics, but does not admit the Church as the interpreter of religion.

Independence of State against the claims of religion could be achieved only by the third process.

These three steps are not merely alternatives. They show the order of development.

Histories of various countries in Europe dealing with the secularization of politics, show that the course of events roughly corresponded with the three stages named above. There is also a good reason for such a sequence. Prior to the rebellion of various countries against the See of Rome, the morals of the people were guided by the instruction of the Church. Such a process is natural when there is no rival social or moral philosophy, and no inductive thought and speculation regarding morals specially by lay classes in the community. The idea of the people was not to seek morals for their own sake but only for the purpose of going to heaven, which could be done only by leading not moral life but a Christian life. The Christian Scriptures again are not a positive treatise on morals, but consist of various books of different character, containing history (mythology),

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