Material Culture of the Iglulik Eskimos/Chapter 4

Like all Eskimos, the Iglulik Eskimos are a pronounced hunting people they depend upon the animal world for their food, clothing and most of the material for their weapons and tools. Hunting and fishing are the principal occupations and the greatest pleasures of the men, those upon which the whole economic life of the family depends. Therefore it is only natural that it is especially in this domain that Eskimo technique displays itself and has attained such admirable results.

The hunting of the Iglulik Eskimos falls naturally into two main sections, aquatic mammals and terrestrial mammals; then there is a third, less important section, the catching of birds and fish. Whereas among most other Eskimo tribes the hunting of aquatic mammals is of paramount importance, it is, as the foregoing has shown, not the case here, caribou hunting being at least as important, a feature which the Iglulik Eskimos have in common with the other Central Eskimo tribes; the Netsiliks, the Caribou Eskimos and the Copper Eskimos.

The seals which are of significance to the Iglulik Eskimos are the small seal (Phoca foetida) and the bearded seal (P. barbata); there are large numbers of both species along the coasts of the country.

The methods of hunting vary according to the seasons. In winter the principal method is breathing-hole hunting (máunertut): it has been mentioned previously from Iglulik by Parry^[1] and Lyon^[2] and from the Aiviliks by Boas.^[3] The implements used for breathing-hole hunting are:

The Ice-hunting Harpoon (unâng), with its head and line. Fig. 7 a is a modern ice-hunting harpoon from Ponds Inlet. It consists of a piece of round-iron, 1.34 m long, 1.0 cm thick, inserted in a hand-grip of antler 13 cm long, which ends in a knob. To the fore end of the iron is lashed a piece of wood, 59 cm long. by means of eight lashings of sinew-thread passing through holes in the wooden shaft and ​Image missingFig. 7.Ice hunting harpoon with head and line. round the iron; these lashings are in most places tightened by means of small wooden wedges. 19–23 cm from the fore end of this wooden shaft there is round it and the iron shaft a strong lashing of sinew-thread which holds a seal-thong loop for the harpoon line, and 26 cm below this lashing is a "tikâgut", finger rest, of ivory. In the prolongation of the wooden shaft there is, at the bottom, a small, bent iron stud, fastened to the iron shaft by a brass band and thus forming an eye for the strap of the line. The lower end of the harpoon iron is a truncated cone in shape.

Fig. 7 b shows the line and head of an ice-hunting harpoon (Ponds Inlet). The line (aleq) is of seal-thong, 7.9 m long, about 0.8 cm wide. In a loop at one end is the harpoon head; this has been filed out of one piece of iron, 7.5 cm long, flat, with two powerful opposite barbs, the line hole parallel to the plane of these, and two powerful bifurcated dorsal spurs. 70 cm from the fore end of the line is fastened a thin strap of seal-thong, 35 cm long, which is drawn through the metal eye of the shaft and thus tightens the line. At the other end the line is furnished with a 15 cm loop, the two ends of which are held by a buckle in the shape of an animal's head with mouth (through which the line emerges). eyes and ears; it is pierced by two holes, one through the entire length of the buckle, the other from the rear end to a hole in the under side, in which the end-knot of the line rests. Through a hole in the thong of this loop is inserted a piece of seal-thong, 13.5 cm long, which ends in a button shaped like a bird, and forming a buckle for holding the coiled line together.

Fig. 8 shows two carefully carved buckles for the end-loop of the line,^[4] both of ivory. a (Iglulik) is formed like an animal's head (dog?), b (Repulse Bay) has another shape. Fig. 9a shows the usual form of buckle for holding the coils of the line;^[5] this is of ivory; the beak acts as a hook ​for the line, the other end of which has been fastened to the rear end of the buckle. The shape, however, is often more crude. One of the numerous specimens in the collection has two heads.

Fig. 9b (Iglulik) is a stopper of ivory; these are often fixed to the ice hunting harpoon line in order to hold the shaft to it when the seal is harpooned and the line runs out; the stopper is then caught by the loop of the shaft.

Fig. 10. 11-15 are various forms of harpoon heads (tûkaq) for ice-hunting harpoons for seals. 12 (Aivilingmiut) is slender, rather thin, with the blade parallel to the line hole. The others are flat: 11 and ​14 (Ponds Inlet) are of antler, 13 (Iglulik) of ivory and 15 (Iglulik) of copper; all have iron blades.

Tikâgut are sometimes quite plain with a single hole (Fig. 11.3 Ponds Inlet), and sometimes more elongated (Fig. 11.1 Iglulik); it is rare that they have a human head as Fig. 11.2 (Ponds Inlet).

As to the form of the ice-hunting harpoon in former days we have only an imperfect idea from Parry's sketch. p. 172; it seems to have a wooden shaft with a bone cap, a slender, fixed foreshaft of Image missingFig. 11.Finger rests. 2:3. bone and a thin head, with the blade at right-angles to the plane of the line hole.

Fig. 12.1 (Ponds Inlet) is a set of ice-hunting gear, which the hunter always takes with him when hunting seals at the breathing holes. It consists of a bound-up piece of seal-thong, from which hang: a drag line (uniutaq) of seal thong, 75 cm long, with a short, toggle-shaped handle of ivory at one end; the other end, for about 30 cm from the point. is slit; the point can thus be drawn through the lower jaw of the seal, the handle is put through this slit and the seal can be dragged by this means. Two ivory rests for the ice-hunting harpoon (Iliorqavit), 15–17 cm long, with a hollow at the top for the harpoon shaft; a little further down is an extension with a hole, in which the thong which holds them is fastened by a knot. A small skin strap, in which are inserted two, wound plugs (tuputaq)^[6] of ivory, 7.3–8.1 cm long, sharply triangular, pointed, with marked heads. Furthermore, a loop, which can be closed by a small toggle and a small buckle of ivory, for reserve harpoon heads. Fig. 12.2 (Iglulingmiut, Itibdjeriang) is a similar set of ice-hunting gear. The drag line is 57 cm long, of plaited sinew-thread, and ends in a handsomely carved little button; it is held to the line by a small toggle. There is also a small sealskin bag, with four wound plugs and two loops, which can be closed by finely carved toggles and buckles; one of the toggles is shaped like a kayak.

A third set (Ponds Inlet) has two drag lines, one of which ends in a round, rather pointed piece of antler, whilst the handle of one line is formed of a loop, the other of a knot; there is also a small bag of seal skin with only part of the hair on, containing five wound plugs, to which hang two screw-wound plugs^[7] of wood; finally, a toggle and buckle of ivory.

​Fig. 13 shows a number of loose objects belonging to such sets of ice-hunting gear: 1-2 are handles for drag lines (from Iglulingmiut in Repulse Bay and Iglulik), both of ivory. 3 is a screw wound plug of wood (Ponds Inlet). 4-5 are wound plugs of ivory; 4 (Ponds Inlet) is small, triangular, 5 (Pingerqalik) is larger, thin, ensiform, 6 (Southampton Island) is a small sealskin bag with four wound plugs and a needle for sewing up the wounds of seals, all of ivory. 7 (Manertoq) Image missingFig. 12.Ice hunting gears. 1:3. is a similar needle, round, with a large eye. 8-10 are buckles of ivory of various shapes^[8] (Pingerqalik, Mitimatalik, Iglulik). 11 is a buckle with its appurtenant toggle (Iglulik) and 12-13 are small toggles of ivory (Iglulik), the latter shaped like a kayak.

Fig. 14 Qilalukan) is a rest for ice-hunting harpoons, of wood: two from Itibdjeriang, also of wood, are much heavier than the foregoing and covered at the top with cotton grass in order that the harpoon may be lifted and laid down noiselessly; they are held together by a broad band of caribou skin. Another pair, likewise of wood (Aivil.) are 30 cm long, covered at the top with hairy caribou skin and held together by a piece of sealskin.

​The Breathing-hole Searcher (sikuarsiuk), (Fig. 16, Ponds Inlet), consists of a rather curved iron rod, about 85 cm long, with a handle of antler. A specimen from Chesterfield Inlet is of antler, 70 cm long, with an oblong plate of antler as a handle. Another specimen from Qajûvfik is also of antler, 58 cm long, about 0.6 cm thick and, as a handle, has a short cross-stick thrust through one end. Hall^[9] mentions breathing hole searchers of "whalebone".

The Seal Indicator (qaipqataq) (Fig. 15.2 Ponds Inlet), is a thin, straight rod of wire, 80 cm long; the lower end is pointed, the upper end has an eye in which is tied a sinew-thread cord, 57 cm long. A seal hook (niksik) (Fig. 15.1), consisting of a flat shaft of wood, 96 cm long, serves as a sheath for the seal indicator; at one end is a powerful iron hook, lashed on with sinew thread; at the middle is a handle of sealskin; a deep groove is cut in one edge, and closed by means of cross-bands, for the indicator; the line of the indicator is wound round a small reel of wood.

A seal indicator from a fairly recent grave at Simiutaq, Repulse Bay, is 72 cm long and at the upper end has a small, flat head of ivory, to which the line is fastened.

In former times the seal indicator was of bone.^[10]

Seal-hunting itself proceeds in the following manner: A dog is taken along for the purpose of finding the breathing holes; it has harness on, and the rear end of the trace is often tied to the hunter's ​belt; it is not always, however. that a dog is necessary for finding breathing holes. When the hole has been found, the dog is tied up some distance from it. Next, the hole must be examined to ascertain whether the hole has been recently used, and to find out the shape of it; the hole searcher is used for this purpose, being put vertically Image missingFig. 14.Rest for ice hunting harpoon. 2 : 3. into the hole; while the left hand loosely holds the upper part, the right hand turns the handle round so that the rod turns round its own axis, by which means the lower part, owing to the curve, will describe a wide arc; this is now allowed to follow the edge of the hole until the centre of the hole is found; this is marked by a small hole in the snow which covers the hole; it is in there that the harpoon is to be struck. If the hole has not been used recently, there is a thick layer of ice on the water. After thus having found that the hole has recently been used by a seal and the middle has been determined, the hunter builds himself a small shelter-wall of blocks of snow if it should be windy, the breathing hole lying excentrically so that he himself may sit in the centre of the shelter; a block of snow serves as a seat, and on it he lays a piece of caribou skin. Sometimes the feet are thrust into a bag of caribou skin (tuteriaq), which reaches almost to the knees, or they are placed on a double piece of caribou skin with the hair on both sides, or on a piece of hare skin. Often the hunter ties his knees together with a cord, qorotaq, so that if he falls asleep, his knees will not fall apart and creak. The harpoon is laid by his side on the two rests and a knife is stuck into the snow. The seal indicator is placed vertically in the hole and fastened to a stick (oftenest the seal hook), inserted obliquely into the snow by the side of the hole. If there is a very thick layer of snow on the ice, the hunter may use a wad of eiderdown or of hare fur which he presses a little way into the hole and, by means of the pressure of air when the seal comes, is blown into the air; the wad is fastened to a thin cord, the other end of which is tied to the knife or frozen fast to the ice.

All the hunter has to do now is to wait for the appearance of the seal. As soon as it comes, it touches the seal indicator, which rises up, the hunter seizes the harpoon and thrusts it with all his might through the centre of the hole; as a rule it will then hit the seal's head and the harpoon head will come off the shaft; but as the hunter ​holds on to the other end of the line, in which there is a loop, the seal is caught and, the next time it comes up — if it does not die outright — he strikes it on the head with the roundiron of the harpoon and kills it. The breathing hole is then cut large enough to permit the passage of the body when it is drawn up; the wounds are Image missingFig. 15.Seal indicator. closed with wound plugs, the towing line is put through the lower jaw and the seal is dragged to the sledge.

This "wait-hunting" (nigpartoq) may often be a very lengthy process; but, given sufficient patience, it will always yield a return. Both small and bearded seals are caught in this manner; in the case of bearded seal, the loop of the harpoon line is taken round a leg or an arm, and it is necessary to act very rapidly; a man at Iglulik had his thumb torn off through the line twisting itself round it.

Sometimes this method of hunting is also practised by women, a feature to which Lyon^[11] refers.

Other breathing-hole hunting methods not so much used are:

Unuktortjuit: All breathing holes in a wide circle are beset by children and women, who scare the seals away when they appear; at last they go exhausted to the hole at which the hunter is waiting.

Máuleqiartut: A boy drives in a sledge in a wide circle round the hole where the hunter is waiting, but no wider than that he can shout to the hunter. Thus the seals are scared away from the other breathing holes.

The same name is used of another method: two men walk over the ice; at a breathing hole they leave a skin; they pass this again and one of them remains on the skin while the other walks on; this persuades the seal that they have both gone on and it comes up to breathe.

These three hunting methods, which were described to Freuchen by the old hunter Aua at Itibdjeriang, are however very rarely used.

Smooth-ice hunting (quisiartut) is sometimes pursued at Iglulik, more frequently at Ponds Inlet and Admiralty Inlet. It is practised ​in autumn on new ice. Hare or bear skin is fastened to the soles of the hunter's feet. Every time the seal snorts at a breathing hole (mostly about eight times at each appearance), the hunter takes a step towards the hole, for when it snorts the seal cannot hear the step; when the seal has finished the hunter stands quite still. In this manner he gradually gets to the hole and can harpoon the seal.

Hunting young seals is carried on in spring. The dogs scent out the feeding holes in the ice where the still woolly coated seals lie. By stamping on the ice one can hear where the cavity is; a hole is then hewn in the ice with the ice-pick and the young seal is hauled out with the seal hook. This hunting, however, is not of much importance.

At current openings, where there is open water all through the winter, the following method of seal hunting is pursued: The hunter stands at the end of the hole towards which the current runs. The seal is carried with the current towards him; when it raises its head above the water it is shot and, when the current then brings it towards the edge of the ice, it is harpooned.

From the ice edge, at cracks and holes, the method sinâsiorneq is practised in winter, and especially in spring; the hunter stands ready at the ice edge or at the hole and harpoons the seal when it appears. The ice-hunting harpoon must then be thrown, in which case the line is led through the loop on the shaft in order to hold the shaft when the head breaks off; when the harpoon is thrust into the seal it is, of course, retained in the hand and this measure is not necessary. At Button Point four men caught 30 seals in this manner in the course of an afternoon in June.

More important, however, is ũtoq hunting (ũtorniarneq): hunting seals that are basking in the sun; from the middle of May until the ice breaks up this method gives a rich yield; it is as a rule from this hunting that the Eskimos obtain their winter supplies of blubber. Nowadays guns are always used, with the result that large numbers of seals are lost, as the creeping hunter does not kill them outright and they have strength enough to let themselves glide into the hole. The old fashioned method of crawling up to the seal, imitating a seal's movements on the way, and then harpooning it at short range, is still known by older men but is not used much as it is very slow; an old man at Ponds Inlet, however, caught two seals in this manner in the summer of 1923; it is illustrated by Parry.^[12] Rae^[13] mentions that the women at Repulse Bay were skilful at crawling up to seals and killing them with a small club.

Sometimes large numbers of seals lie about a crack and may move away some distance from it; if the Eskimos then succeed in getting between them and the crack they fall an easy prey. Gilder^[14] says that on one day from 75 to 100 seals were caught in this manner in Repulse Bay; they were killed with clubs.

Kayak hunting of seals has now almost gone out of use and is now only pursued in Baffin Land; boats are also used. The method in both cases is the same: The seal raises its head above water; it is shot at, and the hunters row as quickly as possible towards it in order to harpoon it, usually with the ice-hunting harpoon, but often with the big walrus or narwhal harpoon. Most seals, however. sink before the harpoon can be put into them. The seal belongs to the hunter who first wounds it; if it is a bearded seal, however, he only gets half of it, the remainder being divided among the others taking part in the hunt. Formerly for this kayak hunting of seals a lighter throwing harpoon or bladder dart (aklin) was used; one of these is figured by Parry.^[15] A harpoon of this type, brought home from Iglulik in 1823 by Lyon, is now in the Pitt Rivers Collection in the Oxford University Museum (No. 678). The shaft is round, of wood; the fore end is reinforced by a band of baleen strips; the foreshaft is of ivory, has a conical rear end and has a hole through it for the line, which is fastened by a knot. The head is of ivory, slightly thin, with two bifurcated spurs and an iron blade at right angles to the line hole. The line runs from the hole in the foreshaft through the head. then down along the foreshaft and round the shaft a number of times, being steadied there by a wooden peg. At about the middle of the shaft is a bladder, fastened on with two lashings; in the fore end it has a mouthpiece of bone, closed by a bone plug. A similar specimen is figured by Boas.^[16]

As has been stated, walrus hunting is of great importance in many places, especially in the Iglulik area, but also on Southampton Island, at Depot Island and formerly at Repulse Bay too. It is pursued in winter from the ice, and in summer from boats.

Ice hunting. The following are the implements for this: the walrus harpoon (unâng). Fig. 17.1 (Iglulik) shows one of these. The total length of the shaft is 1.83 metres. The wooden shaft is squareoval in cross section; to the fore end is scarfed with sinew thread a foreshaft of ivory, composed of two pieces lashed together; at the butt end of the shaft a piece of iron piping has been fastened on as an ice pick (otherwise this is of bone). On one side of the fore end of the foreshaft a seal-thong is fastened, and this is pulled tight down along one side of the shaft, passes in under the scarf lashing and a smaller transversal lashing and is finally made fast under the lashing at the rear end. About midway up the wooden shaft is a tikâgut of ivory.

Fig. 17.2 (Qajûvfik) is the line and head of a harpoon of this kind. The line is of thick seal-thong. 30 m long, about 0,8 cm wide and 0.5 cm thick. In a 20 cm loop at one end is the harpoon head, of antler, thin, with the iron blade at right angles to the plane of the line hole, and one spur; 10.1 cm long. At the other end of the line is a loop, 20 cm long.

The lance (anguvigaq) is of the same type as that figured by Boas 1888, p. 496, fig. 432, from Cumberland Gulf: a wooden shaft with tikâgut and a cap-shaped socket piece at the fore end, loose foreshaft. fastened to the shaft by lashings through two holes at right angles to each other and with an inserted iron blade; the foreshaft itself is oftenest of ivory. A lance of this description, now in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh (No. U. C. 159), doubtless from Parry's Expedition 1821–23, is shown in fig. 18. The length of this shaft is 1.11 m. of the foreshaft 0.44 m; the foreshaft is of whale bone.

Fig. 19 (found at Mitimatalik, Ponds Inlet) is an earlier foreshaft. of a similar lance; it is of whale bone, 10.4 cm long, oval in section. pierced by two holes at an angle to each other; in the rear end a short, distinct tenon; in the fore end a deep, cylindrical socket for the tang of the iron blade.

Fig. 20 (Pingerqalik) is a loose lance head,^[17] which can be fixed to the harpoon shaft. This specimen is old. found in the ground. It is of ivory, with an iron blade, oval in section, with closed shaft ​socket and a faint spur, in which is a hole for the line which is to hold the head on to the harpoon shaft. It has been about to split, and Image missingFig. 18.
Lance (Parry's collection, Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh). Image missingFig. 19.
Lance-foreshaft. 1 : 2. has been repaired by putting a copper rivet through it, and it has had a lashing through two holes and grooves.

The other loose lance heads in the collection are smaller, 5½–9 cm long; only one has a faint spur in a plane at right angles to the blade; the others have it in the same plane. One is seen in the preliminary archaeological report^[18] Fig. 3 No. 4 above.

The method of hunting the walrus from the ice is as follows: There are always several hunters together — never less than two, most often more. They take up positions by the ice edge and scan the open water for walruses; very often they try to decoy the walruses closer by making grunting noises. When one comes sufficiently near it is harpooned. The shaft of an ice-hunting harpoon is stuck into the ice through the end-loop of the line so as to hold the latter. If they do not succeed in making the line fast in this manner. the hunter will often try to hold the walrus by bracing his feet with all his strength against a firmly frozen block of ice.^[19] If he is compelled to let go, the harpoon and Image missingFig. 20.
Loose lancehead. 1 : 2. line are lost as well as the walrus; it does happen, too, that he himself becomes entangled in the line and is pulled into the water by the walrus; not a few Eskimos lose their lives in this manner. Once the walrus is securely fastened to the ice it is doomed; every time it slackens the line a little it is pulled further and further towards the ice and at last it is so near that the hunters can thrust their lances into it. No shooting is indulged in if possible, in order not to scare the other walruses away.

A similar method is followed on winter ice, which is no thicker than that the walrus can thrust his head through it when coming up to breathe. The hunters stand scattered about the ice with their harpoons ready; ​the walrus often comes again to the same hole. Even though the hunters may be too far away to be able to harpoon a walrus appearing in this fashion, they often run at it to scare it; this gradually exhausts it and finally it remains up rather a long time and can then be harpooned.

When the walrus is killed it must be drawn up and, with its ton weight, this is often the most difficult work, especially on thin ice which continually breaks away. A tackle is made: the line is fastened in a hole cut through the nose of the walrus, then passes round the ice-hunting harpoon shaft which has been stuck into the ice, back again and through a loop formed of a piece of the breast hide and again back in the line on which all the hunters haul. Sometimes the line is fastened to the walrus by passing it through the nose and casting the end-loop over one of the tusks. If it is on new ice, thongs are fastened to the fore flippers and these are drawn out to the sides, thus making the bearing surface wider, whereby the ice can stand the weight better.

Boat hunting for walrus is as follows: Walruses lie asleep on a drifting ice-floe. The boat is paddled towards it as noiselessly as possible and, when at quite close range, the hunters fire their guns. The walruses immediately throw themselves into the water, and one of the men must now always be ready with a loaded gun in case any of the walruses should attack the boat. If one of the walruses is wounded or dead the task is to harpoon it before it sinks. Unwounded walruses are not harpooned as a rule, for fear they should attack the boat. Attacking walruses from a kayak is also considered to be very dangerous.

Walruses which have crawled on shore are also caught sometimes; this is said to happen particularly at Uglerlârssuk, where the beach consists of sand which readily slips away under them.

The harpoon used in summer-hunting for walrus is the same as that used for narwhal hunting, only with another head.

Fig. 10. 3 and 1 (from Manertoq and Chesterfield Inlet) are typical walrus harpoon heads, powerful, with the blade at right angles to the line hole; sometimes a sheath of sealskin is used for these harpoon heads.

The hunter who first harpoons a walrus receives the fore-part; the others receive parts in accordance with certain rules. At Iglulik a walrus was divided between the following four hunters who had helped to catch it: 1 (the one who had first harpooned it), the forepart, head, entrails and left fore-flipper. 2) Right fore flipper. 3) Back flippers and rump. 4) Breast, cut out from the tip of the chin to the navel. All ribs went with the first two portions.

White-whales frequent several places, as for instance Repulse Bay (on August 3rd, 1922, six were caught in breaks in the ice at Beach Point), Duke of York Bay, Lyon Inlet; they are caught from boats (with gun and harpoon) and also from the ice edge. Sometimes a school is caught in an open hole in the ice (savssat) and then become an easy prey.

Narwhals are of great importance at Ponds Inlet and Admiralty Inlet; there the principal hunting ground is Button Point. When the ice is breaking up they appear at the ice edge, in cracks and holes, by the hundred, and, when the ice has gone out, great schools of them pass through Ponds Inlet all the summer. They are hunted from boats and also from kayaks; as a rule they are first shot and then harpooned; a large number are lost, however, through this not very rational method.

The implement used is the narwhal harpoon. Fig. 21 shows one of these with its line and bladder, from Ponds Inlet. The shaft (1) is of wood, oval in section, 1.44 m long; a socket-piece of ivory, 4 cm long, with a socket in the fore end, is fastened to it by two rivets; this socket fits. a tenon on the rear end of the foreshaft. This is of ivory, 36 cm long, slightly curved; through its lower end are two holes at right angles to ​each other, and through these and two holes in the wooden shaft runs a seal-thong in a similar manner to that figured by Boas 1888, fig. 420, from Cumberland Gulf. In one edge of the shaft, 53 cm from the fore end, is a tikâgut of ivory, and, 12 cm further down, a small copper peg in one side of the shaft for the line tension-piece. On another harpoon, also from Ponds Inlet, the shaft (with socket piece) is 1.80 m long, the foreshaft 35 cm.

The line (2) is of thick seal-thong, 9 cm long, about 1 cm wide; at one end is the harpoon head, fastened in a loop 35 cm long. The head Image missingFig. 22.Mouth piece and cross piece for bladder. Image missingFig. 23.Swivel for harpoon-line. 2 : 3. is of antler, very flat, with almost parallel sides and two dorsal spurs, each divided by four or five small notches; an iron blade in prolongation of the bone head; 85 cm from the fore end of the line is a loop of seal thong, 13 cm long, which is secured to the tension piece, a narrow, flat piece of ivory, 7½ cm long, with five holes in a row. The other end of the line has a running noose for holding the handle of the bladder.

The bladder (3) consists of a seal skin taken off whole, unhaired except on the fore flippers which have been retained with claws. The rear end is closed, the skin being tied tightly round a cross piece over which the noose of the line can be passed. The fore end is fitted with a mouth-piece of bone, closed by means of a wooden plug. The length of the bladder is about 1 m.

Fig. 10.1 (Ponds Inlet) is a large, modern narwhal harpoon head. 2 (Ponds Inlet) is a similar one, smaller, of antler, 6 is an old specimen found in the ground, from Pingerqalik, which has presumably been used for the same purpose. 5 is a modern narwhal and white-whale harpoon head from the Aivilingmiut. These harpoon heads have to be fairly large in order not to be torn out of the comparatively soft and not very tough skin of these animals.

Fig. 22.1 (Pingerqalik) is a loose mouth-piece of ivory with the wooden plug in it. Others are only 4 cm long. Fig. 22.2 (Iglulik) is a cross-piece of wood, used as a holder on a bladder. In the Anangiarssuk find^[20] there is a holder of this kind, of ivory, a socket-piece and a tikâgut for a kayak harpoon and another form of tension piece. ​Fig. 23 (Iglulik) is a swivel for placing on the harpoon line to prevent it from twisting; these are sometimes used for the kayak harpoon.

Fig. 21.4 (Ponds Inlet) is a drag anchor, which also belongs to the kayak harpoon and is fixed to the line just in front of the bladder.^[21] It consists of an almost round wooden frame, 26–29 cm in diameter, 3½ cm wide, over which is stretched a piece of unhaired sealskin, fastened to the frame by a lashing of seal-thong through a number of holes in the skin. By means of 4 thongs, running from the frame, it is fastened on to the harpoon line.

When dividing narwhals and white whales, the hunter who first hits the animal gets a half.

Big whales are only hunted occasionally. In the summer of 1922 two bowhead whales were caught, one at Repulse Bay and one at Ponds Inlet; these, however, were exceptional. There are no special weapons for whaling, the walrus and narwhal harpoons being used.

There still remain a few observations to make about the harpoon heads of the Iglulik Eskimos. In all, our collection contains 45 harpoon heads from the Iglulik Eskimos; this includes specimens in old finds which are known to be from the same culture (the Anangiarssuk and Qaersuarsuit finds), but not the Thule culture's transitional finds. Of these 45 specimens, five have open shaft sockets; these are all old specimens found in the ground, such as fig. 10.9, of antler with iron blade and two spurs, and 10, which has only one spur, both found at Iglulik. This is a form which has now gone out of use and which displays a connection with the forms of the Thule culture. Of the 45 specimens. 27 are flat and 18 thin, a feature which shows the dominating position of the flat harpoon heads in the modern culture. Most of the harpoon heads have no barbs; most of the thin ones have the blade at right angles to the plane of the line hole, whereas the flat heads always have the blade parallel with this plane. Otherwise the harpoon heads are groupable in comparatively few types, each with its particular purpose, which has already been referred to, and all of which are represented on fig. 10.

The flensing of aquatic mammals proceeds according to strict rules. Seals are flensed, as a rule by the men, in the following manner: A cut down the middle of the belly, the skin with the blubber attached is cut off, the entrails removed and the body is parted by cuts between the ribs. A bearded seal at Ponds Inlet was parted in this manner: a tightened thong made marks in the hair, and cuts. were made over these marks. All the skin from front flippers to head, which would be used for sole leather, fell to the hunter, whilst the ​remainder of the skin, to be used for thongs, was divided into six portions according to the number present when the catch made. Walruses are often flensed in this way: the bones are cut out and the hide is cut longitudinally into three pieces, which are sewn round with a piece of skin with the blubber on. Long flensed pieces of this kind, ungerdlertut, are easier to carry, especially over pack ice, and easier to cut or chop for dog feed as there is no bone in them; dogs are often harnessed to a piece and it is dragged home.

At Ponds Inlet, narwhals are flensed in the following manner: the skin is taken off in two whole sides, from back to belly. First the small fin is cut out of the back, the fore flippers are cut out, and the tail is cut off three or four vertebrae behind the anus. Matak (the hide) and the blubber hanging to it are peeled off; the meat is cut out, beginning at transversi and cutting across the muscle fibres. The flesh under the spine is cut away from both sides and the breast taken out in one piece lengthwise. The head is then cut off. A hole is cut in the fat under the tusks to drain the liquid oil from the head.

Caribou hunting is the favourite occupation of the Iglulik Eskimos. At the cry of "tugto" all other work is discontinued and the men rush off to pursue the caribou, often for days; if a journey is in progress. a halt is made immediately when caribou, or merely their fresh tracks are seen, no matter what the object of the journey may be and whether there is plenty of food or not.

Caribou hunting is pursued in all seasons whenever there is an opportunity. But it is particularly in summer and autumn that it is of importance; the skins are then still short-haired and useful for clothing. All the younger men then make their way into the country to hunt, whilst the older men usually — though not always — remain at some good hunting ground or other at the coast or at a salmon lake. But it often happens that caribou hunting extends over the most of winter and not until March-April do the Eskimos move down to the coast.

Nowadays the caribou is always hunted with the gun. In summer and autumn the Eskimos rove about in the interior, following the caribou herds. Often it is one family alone, sometimes two or three families together, rarely more; they travel by means of pack-dogs and only the most necessary things are taken: tent, sleeping rugs, the least quantity of clothing possible, especially boots, cooking pots, a small lamp — most often of tin nowadays — blubber for illumination, guns, ammunition, flensing knives, the tool-box with its contents ​of knives, drill, saw and adze, pipe and tobacco as long as it lasts; a salmon spear is often taken along too. Dog and man share the often considerable burdens between them, the children who can walk follow behind, whilst the younger ones are carried in the frock-pouch. Then, when they reach the caribou district, they camp and the hunting commences, until conditions compel them to move to another place. The caribou caught are skinned, the hides are dried and deposited under stones, and the meat that is not eaten at once is also stored in caches which are marked by a small cairn, usually a big stone, erected at the end. In winter, snow houses are built in the caribou area, and then they do not move about so much, as with the sledges which have by this time been fetched the men can cover greater distances. The sledges carry the shot caribou to the snow houses, where they are skinned and eaten; at this time of the year nothing is left to be cached; the meat is now lean, and large quantities of lean, frozen caribou meat are required to satisfy man and dog; the summer depots often have to be brought into use. If the hunter is on foot, the meat is hidden under the snow until it can be brought in by sledge, and only two or three marrow bones, the tongue or the fillet, are taken along as tit-bits for those at home: a caribou that has been shot should, however, preferably be skinned the same day, as otherwise the flesh goes bad.

The hunting itself merely consists of stalking the caribou until the range is short enough for a shot and, as caribou are extremely alert and shy, this is often a work of extreme patience. As the senses. of smell and hearing of the caribou are better developed than its sight, it has to be approached up wind; the last part of the approach usually proceeds at a crawl, advantage being taken of stones and unevennesses of the ground for cover. At the first shot the caribou are often bewildered and sometimes run straight towards the hunter. whose task is thus an easy one. In summer, caribou hunting is immeasurably easier, for then they have plenty of food, their worst enemies, the wolves, are not so importunate and thus do not make them so shy, and the colour of the terrain makes it easier to get quite close to them unobserved. In winter, when everything is white, it is more difficult; it is worst in still, clear weather, for then footsteps can be heard far away; if the terrain is flat into the bargain, hunting may be almost impossible; long periods of this kind of weather will often bring the Eskimos to the verge of starvation. Caribou hunting is easiest in slightly misty weather, preferably with a little wind and snowfall, provided that it is no denser than that the caribou can be seen at long distances. When the snow is drifting thickly or there is a blizzard, caribou hunting is impossible.

​On the whole, however, it must be said that these Eskimos are extremely clever caribou hunters, trained in it as they are from Image missingFig. 24.Bow. childhood. The Polar Eskimos whom we had with us on the expedition could not nearly approach the local Eskimos in skill at caribou hunting; on the other hand they were superior at the hunting of marine animals.

Prior to the introduction of guns, caribou hunting was pursued with the bow and arrow, and also with the spear from the kayak.

The bow and arrow have been used by many of the adult men now living; several of them have only acquired guns during the past few years; but now the bow and arrow are only used as playthings by children and youths.

The implements used in this form of hunting are as follows:

The bow (pitigse). Fig. 24 (Aivilingmiut, Chesterfield Inlet) is a "backed bow" of antler with sinew backing of the type which Birket-Smith^[22] calls the "eastern secondary type". It consists of seven pieces of antler lashed together, three large pieces end to end and four strengthening pieces which, with the two strong lashings of sinew-thread. hold the three long pieces together. At the ends are nocks for the string, which is of twisted sinew-thread. The sinew backing consists of 6–7 longitudinal cords and 14 double cross-bindings, all of plaited sinew-thread. Near one end. under the sinew backing, a double piece of sealskin, 20 cm long, has been inserted and, to further strengthen one joint, a small copper plate has been placed over one of the flat strengthing pieces. The total length of the bow is 1.10 m; width of stave 3–3½ cm.

On fig. 200 (from a grave found in Moffet Inlet) are the pieces of which a compound bow of this kind is made:^[23] three long pieces, which have been bound together. and four strengthening pieces, two of them thick, with ridges. at the ends, the other two flat, thin (one of these is missing). The length of this bow has been 87 cm.

A bow from Ingnertoq is 87 cm long, about 3 cm wide; on this the stave is formed by scarfing three pieces of antler together,^[24] iron nails being used to complete the joint. The sinew backing is thicker, consisting of 14 longitudinal cords with 32 double cross​bindings, but otherwise like those of the foregoing; at two places there are small pieces of sealskin under the sinew backing. There are Image missingFig. 25.Bow (Parry's collection, Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburg). other three bows in the collection, all of antler and formed by scarfing three pieces of antler and with a strong sinew backing. The lengths are 82, 84 and 90 cm; they come from Iglulik, Manertoq and Itibdjeriang respectively.

Parry^[25] mentions bows of wood in one piece, but says at the same time that they are rare and that the usual bows are of pieces of antler lashed together. Lyon^[26] gives the usual length of bows as 3½ feet and says that when in use, the bow is held horizontally. Those I have seen used were held in the left hand in an oblique position, the upper end leaning to the right.

Fig. 25 (Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, No. U. C. 164) is a bow, purchased by Parry at Winter Island 1822. The stave is of one piece of wood. 1.38 m long, 4½ cm wide, 1½–2 cm thick. A strengthening piece of antler, 25 cm long, is riveted to the concave side at the middle. The back has a sinew backing — a powerful bunch of thread, consisting of several plaited cords; just at the ends a single cross binding runs from this, a little way from the ends 6–7 double bindings and, at the middle, 7–8 many-stranded bindings. The string is fairly thick and consists of several twisted, plaited cords.

Arrows (qardjoq). Fig. 26.1 (Chesterfield Inlet) is an arrow with a round wooden shaft, two opposite feathers held by sinew-thread bindings round both ends; a foreshaft of antler, scarfed to the shaft by a bevel end and sinew-thread binding, and an iron blade, fastened on with an iron rivet. Length 58 cm.

Fig. 26.2 (Iglulik) differs from the above in that it has not a separate blade, but a head of antler, symmetrical, without barbs. 52 cm long.

An arrow from Ingnertoq is 59 cm long, of which 13 cm are accounted for by an iron head, hammered out at the end into a blade, a tang at the rear end inserted in a cleft in the shaft; no feathers.

These three forms of arrows are used indiscriminately for caribou hunting, the first one more frequently. A loose foreshaft of one of these, from Ponds inlet, is shown in fig. 27; it is of antler, round, cut obliquely at the rear end and ​furnished with a sunk portion and a groove for the lashing. Of the numerous arrows and loose arrow heads in the collection, all have bone heads cut obliquely at the rear end; none of them have the conical tang which predominates in the Thule culture, and none of Image missingFig. 26.
Arrows. them have barbs. Raven, owl and eider-duck feathers are used.

Parry,^[27] however, describes the arrows at Iglulik as follows: "— —About two-thirds of the whole length is of fir rounded, and the rest of bone let by a socket. into the wood..." This shows that the old conical tang was still in use in Parry's time. Of the three arrows preserved from Parry's voyage (now Image missingFig. 27.
Arrowhead. 1:2. in the Royal Scottish Museum), two of them, however, have obliquely-ending foreshafts and only one (which furthermore is not known to be Parry's with complete certainty) has a conical tang. Thus both methods have apparently been in use in Parry's time and only later has the former become the sole method.

Quivers (qardjorfik). Fig. 28 (Iglulik) is a quiver for bow and arrows. It consists of two long, narrow bags of unhaired sealskin, one large for the bow and a shorter one for the arrows; the latter can be closed by means of a hood, fastened on with a piece of seal-thong, the former can be drawn together by means of a seal-thong sewn on to it. On the side not visible on the figure is a small bag of hairy caribou skin, 17 cm long, for extra arrow feathers, cutting board and similar small trifles.^[28] The quiver is fitted with a thong to go over the shoulder and also with a carrying handle of antler. Total length 68 cm.

Fig. 29 (Iglulik) is a cutting board for arrow feathers; it is of wood, 14 cm long, 0,4 cm thick and has a handle at one end. Fig. 30.1 (Iglulik) is a twister for the sinew backing of the bow, of ivory, 9,9 cm long; it is of the usual shape with a central hole and the ends ​Image missingFig. 28.Quiver. bent over to opposite sides; its use is illustrated by Murdoch.^[29] Fig. 30.2 (Ponds Inlet) is a marline spike^[30] for holding the strands away from each other when twisting Image missingFig. 29.Cutting board for arrow feathers. 1:2. and for tightening the sinew-backing; it is of antler. Boas^[31] figures an arrow straightener from the Aivilik Eskimos, a piece of antler widened at one end, where there is a large hole; two smaller holes in the other end; 33 cm long.

The arrow release was mediterranean^[32] as among the other Central Eskimos.

Caribou hunting with bow and arrow was, like that with the gun, accomplished by stalking for the purpose of getting within range for a shot; but owing to the lower power of the bow, other methods had to be used in order to get near enough. To approach so near without being seen was almost impossible and, instead, the hunter had to try to deceive the caribou into believing that it was another caribou approaching.^[33] Or again, the women and children drove the herds through passes where the men Image missingFig. 30.Twister and marline spike. 12. lay ready with their bows.^[34] Another method, which is described by Parry and confirmed by Hall,^[35] proceeded in this manner: . . "two men walking directly from the deer they wish to kill, when the animal always follow them. As soon as they arrive at a large stone, one of the men hides behind it with his bow, while the other continuing to walk on soon leads the deer within range of his companion's arrows."

The other method of hunting the caribou and ​Image missingFig. 31.Caribou spear. doubtless that which was most important in earlier days, was with the spear from the kayak; this method, however, had of course to be restricted to the short period during which Image missingFig. 32.Knife for pressing out water. lakes and rivers are not covered with ice, from the early part of July until towards October.

The kayak that was used at these hunts is referred to later. The caribou spear^[36] (ipo) will be seen on fig. 31 (Iglulingmiut, Repulse Bay); it consists of a wooden shaft (new), scarfed by means of two sinew-thread lashings to a fixed foreshaft of antler, in the fore end of which is inserted the iron blade, fastened in by two iron rivets; total length 1,93 m, of which the fixed foreshaft is 24 and the blade 7½ cm. Another implement used in this form om hunting is the knife for pressing out water^[37] (imeqtût), for the purpose of pressing the water out of the skin of the dead caribou. Fig. 32 (Ponds Inlet) is of antler, rather hollow, one edge fairly sharp; it is roughly formed and has a cut-out handle; it is split longitudinally but has been repaired with sinew-thread. 34 cm long. Another specimen, found at Lyon Inlet, is S-shaped, very hollow and with six notches in the handle; 33½ cm long.

September is the principal month for this hunting, when the great migration of the caribou to the south proceeds — a period that is also a good one for skins for clothing. On their way south the caribou are compelled to swim a number of crossing places, narrows in lakes and rivers, where the Eskimos lie ready with their kayaks and spears. The Rae Isthmus in particular, which most of the Melville Peninsula caribou have to pass in the autumn, was of importance to this hunting. During periods when the caribou are not migrating, especially in summer proper, they were often driven by women and children down towards the water and into it, where the men lay in wait with their kayaks. At such places caribou fences (talûn) are often erected — long rows of upraised stones leading to the water and guiding the caribou towards it, the idea being to ​dupe them into believing that it is a row of people standing there. These stone fences are still to be seen in many places. A little way up country at Paaske Sound, in Admiralty Inlet, I saw a belt of more than a hundred small cairns running at right angles to the coast (fig. 33). I have seen similar rows at Ipiutaq, the root of the Amitsoq Peninsula, at Tarreojaruluk at the head of Steensby Fjord and a small lake in the country north of the trading station at Repulse Bay. Freuchen saw one at Cleveland Harbour, east of Haviland Bay, where Fig. 33.Stone cairus for caribou-hunting, Paaske Sound. several rows converged towards the sea. Parry^[38] mentions near Hurd Channel "a singular assemblage of flat stones, set up edgeways, each about three yards apart and extending at least for five hundred yards, down to a small lake."

The skinning of caribou is the men's work, and they do it with astonishing skill: the skin is cut up the belly and along the back of the legs and then flayed off. The big two-edged flensing knife slashes. to and bro and, in the course of a moment the big animal is parted: cut up along the belly, the entrails removed, head and marrow bones cut off, heart and fillet and the sinews likewise, hams and shoulders. which are the most fleshy parts, are removed; the fat parts round the spine, breastbone and ribs are the first to be cooked. During the skinning process, when the hands are dripping with steaming blood, a delicacy is now and then snatched: a piece of the heart, a little gut or kidney fat. The blood and stomach contents are ​collected in vessels. In the course of 20–30 minutes a caribou is skinned and flensed and cut up for cooking and for dog-feed.

The number of caribou required by an Eskimo family for food and clothing for the whole year is very large. For the clothing of one grown man alone eight caribou skins are required, and caribou skin is also used for numerous other purposes: sleeping rugs, platform and sledge coverings, tents, sacks, etc. Two Eskimos at Repulse Bay related that in the summer of 1923 they had obtained 51 and 31 caribou respectively, and these were really small numbers. During our stay at Kirchhoffer River on Southampton Island in the period from 25th November 1922 to 5th February 1923. where we were nine adults and five children, and from December other five adults and one child, with a total of about 40 dogs. 98 caribou were killed in all, and this was insufficient to keep the dogs in good condition: several of them died of cold and hunger.

The musk ox has now practically disappeared from the territory of the Iglulik Eskimos. Several of the men now alive have hunted them, however, in behind Wager Inlet and also on North Devon and North Somerset. The method itself is exceedingly simple, as in case of attack the musk oxen place themselves in a circle round the calves and calmly allow themselves to be shot down with gun or arrow.

In former days, arrows with slate heads and two opposite barbs were used in this hunting; if the head broke off, the barbs automatically worked their way in with the movements of the animal. It is apparently an arrow of this type which Parry^[39] figures and which is now in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. It is 64 cm long. the foreshaft of antler accounting for 18 of these: the foreshaft has two opposite barbs and seems to have an obliquely cut rear end; the blade is a small, triangular, facet-ground slate: the shaft has two opposite feathers. A small sheath of unhaired caribou skin. 11 cm long, is tied to the foreshaft with sinew-thread.

As has already been mentioned, bears are not particularly numerous in the country; one can only speak of going bear-hunting in Lancaster Sound: otherwise they are only met with occasionally. They are as a rule hunted with the sledge: three or four dogs are loosed, they catch up with the bear and keep him occupied until ​the man can come up with his gun. Before guns were introduced the caribou spear was the usual weapon; indeed, many Eskimos went against the bear armed only with a flensing knife.^[40] A bear belongs to the one who first wounds it.

Wolves and foxes are caught in traps, nowadays mostly steel traps which are supplied by the trading stations. Only rarely do they come within shooting range. Formerly a number of traps of the Eskimos' own construction were used.

Foxes were trapped especially in box traps (umigeq): a rectangular stone erection, built of flat stones and no broader than that the fox could just enter it; it was open at one end, but could be closed by a flat stone, which was held in a raised position by a cord passed over two stones placed one on the top of the other on the top of the trap and thereafter fastened to the back of the trap where the bait lay; these two stones were so arranged that the slightest shake would cause the top one to slide down and thus allow the trap-door to fall. Similar traps. built of slabs of ice, have also been used; in their case the cord ran through a hole in the rear slab and was fastened to the bait. Lyon^[41] describes the releasing mechanism in the following manner: "to the end of the line is fastened a small hoop of whalebone and to this any kind of flesh bait is attached. From the slab which terminates the trap, a projection of ice, or a peg of wood or bone, points inwards near the bottom, and under this the hoop is lightly hooked: the slightest pull at the bait, and the door falls in an instant".

The dead-fall (kauiaq) consists of a slab of ice 1 × 1½ m and 30–40 cm thick, held in an inclined position by a vertical stick, from which a line runs through a small eye in the ice to the bait: a jerk at this pulls the stick away and the slab falls on the fox.

The tower trap (uvdlasaut) is a stone erection in the form of a truncated cone, about two metres high and about two in diameter at the base; at the bottom is a door, which can be closed by a slab of stone. The roof consists of stone slabs which project over each other but leave an opening in the middle. In winter, when these traps are used, the door is closed and some meat is placed as bait inside the building; at the opening in the roof is placed a stone which slopes downwards into the hole and this is made slippery with ice. When the fox comes and jumps on top of the trap, attract​ed by the bait, it slips and falls down through the opening, and can then be taken out through the door and killed. Formerly the opening at the top was often covered by means of strips of baleen, fastened at one end or, in the absence of baleen, the wing of a gull; then when the fox trod upon these, they bent inwards and he fell inside.^[42] A tower trap in Nyboe's Fjord measures 1½ m inside, 3 m outside diameter; 1,3 m high. One on Hammeren on Vansittart Island is oval, 4 m long, 2 m wide and 2 m high.

Wolves are likewise caught in a variety of ways, for instance in box-traps, arranged on the same principle as those for foxes, but bigger. Parry^[43] mentions ice box-traps for wolves on Winter Island.

Isiptjuraq is a rolled-up strip of baleen, held in this position by sinew-thread; it is enveloped in blubber or meat and thrown out; when the wolf has swallowed it, the sinew-thread is digested, the baleen strip straightens out suddenly and splits the stomach. A model of one of these made for us lacks the characteristic points on those of the Western Eskimos.^[44]

Other methods: Aloqissaq: A snow-knife of iron is laid on the ice with the edge upwards; snow is heaped over it and wetted with blood; the wolf licks the blood and continues until the knife-edge cuts its tongue and the animal bleeds to death. Tartangi: A piece of broken bottle is enveloped in snow, on which blood is poured, and this is swallowed by the wolf. Qâgititaq: A small snow house, with very thin walls, is built; meat is laid upon it, and on the floor inside is placed a knife with the point upwards; when the wolf attempts to take the meat the roof collapses and the wolf is spitted on the knife. Rae^[45] mentions from Repulse Bay another wolf trap: A hole is made in a large bank of snow, 2½–3 m deep, and it is covered with a thin slab of snow on which the bait is placed; around it is built a wall of snow over which the wolf can jump; it then falls into the narrow pit and cannot get up.

It is not strange that cunning methods have been thought out for the purpose of getting the better of the wolf, man's most dangerous and wise opponent. Not only do wolves attack human beings if they are unarmed or their power of resistance is lessened on account of hunger and sickness; but they also steal many dogs and depots of food. They are man's rivals in hunting the caribou and kill many foxes which have been caught in the steel traps; it happens now and then, however, that a wolf is caught in a trap of this sort; sometimes it succeeds in pulling the trap from its moorings, and then must run with it until the leg is cut through.

​Wolverines are shot now and then, partly for their skin, as this can be sold to the trading stations, and partly because the wolverine, owing to its great strength, is able to break open most meat caches and is thus looked upon as a very harmful animal.

Hares, which are not numerous, were formerly caught with baleen snares (nigat), nooses which were placed across old tracks, the hare having a propensity for retracing his steps. They are now shot occasionally with shot-guns, but play an inferior part economically. The same applies to ermines, marmots and lemmings, which are mostly caught for amusement by women and children, who kill them with stones; formerly they were sometimes caught in snares which were set over their holes.^[46]

Birds are of very little importance to the Iglulik Eskimos. There are not many of them; the most important are ptarmigan and eider ducks, and occasionally gulls, ducks, geese, fulmars and looms are shot; in northern Baffin Land there are guillemot cliffs. Eggs are collected where there are guillemot and gull cliffs. Shot-guns are the only weapons used now for birds, but only very few Eskimos have them. Ptarmigan are often killed with stones. In former days, however, a number of different implements and methods were employed for catching birds.

The bird dart (nuing) has now gone out of use; we did not succeed in procuring a single specimen; formerly, however, it was an important implement, mostly used for eider ducks. Fig. 34 shows a bird dart, collected by Parry on Melville Peninsula (Royal Scottish Museum U. C. 160), possibly the same one that Parry himself figures.^[47] It is in all 1.52 cm long. The shaft is composed of two pieces of wood lashed together with cords of baleen; about half-way up this shaft are three side-prongs of ivory, fastened on by two separate lashings, and each prong has two barbs on the inside; at the fore end of the shaft are two bone points, fastened on by two lashings of sinew-thread, the rearmost very strong, the foremost less so; one point has two, the other three barbs, all turning inwards. At the rear end of the shaft is a small ferrule with a socket, of ivory.

Lyon^[48] mentions another kind of dart which has no sideprongs, but has three prongs with barbs at the end.

Fig. 35 (Royal Scottish Museum U. C. 147) is a throwing board^[49] (nokseq) for a bird dart, likewise from Parry's Expedition. It is of wood, flat, with a hollow for the thumb, a hole for the index-finger and shallower hollows for the other three fingers, Image missingFig. 35.Throwing board (Parry's collection, Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh). a longitudinal groove for the shaft of the dart and, in the fore end, an iron peg for the end socket of the shaft; total length 42 cm.

Whether the bola has been known is uncertain. The sling (idlouk) on the other hand is known to have been used for birds, and it is often met with as a toy. A toy sling from Ponds Inlet consists of a rhombic piece of black, unhaired sealskin, 5½ × 3½ cm, with a large central hole and eight smaller holes, forming a cross; at the ends are fastened cords, one 39 cm ending in a loop and one 38 cm ending in a knot.

For catching guillemots on the bird cliffs at Ponds Inlet a catcher (kagdlun) was formerly used, consisting of a shaft about 1½ m long with a round wooden frame, about 1 m in diameter, to which was fastened a bag of seal-thong net; the birds caught were strung by means of a bone needle (nuvit).

Various snares were used for bird catching. In the lifetime of several of the Eskimos whom we met baleen snares were used for diving birds (nigatsiat): Long lines. on which were a number of nooses, were stretched below the water near the shore of shallow lakes, or nest snares: a noose (nigaq) of baleen, the other end of which was fastened to a stone near the nest. Both methods were also in use during Parry's time.^[50] Ducks especially were caught by the former method, and both geese and ducks by the latter. At Ponds Inlet loons were caught by means of small baleen snares.

Gulls were caught in several different ways: The gull hook (qard​jorsaq) Image missingFig. 36.Salmon spear. is a stick of wood in which is inserted a cross-pin of pointed bone; it was enveloped in blubber, tied to a line fastened to a stone on the shore and thrown into the water; when the gull swallowed it, the stick caught in its throat. Similar hooks, but bigger still, are sometimes used for fulmars.

A snow-house (naujasiorvik) is built, just large enough to contain a man; at the top is a small opening, wide enough Image missingFig. 37.Fore end of salmon spear. for him to put his hand through and seize the gull by the legs; the gull is attracted by meat laid on the roof.^[51] In an early grave found at Qilalukan^[52] a bone hook was found, and the Eskimos assert that it was used for seizing a gull by the leg on such occasions; a similar specimen was found at C. Griffith.

It was told that sometimes a live gull is laid on its back on the ice, its wings being held down by stones; other gulls swoop down at it and it holds them fast in its claws so that the catcher can take them.

Geese were sometimes driven into large stone enclosures, where they were killed with sticks when they were very fat and could not fly. It is said that such enclosures are still to be seen at Piling, circular, up to breast height, with long stone fences leading to it. The women often put a string through the nostrils of the geese in order to make transportation easier.

Lyon^[53] mentions that at nesting time the Igluliks caught large numbers of geese on the island of Nerdlunartoq. north of Iglulik. Hall^[54] says that at Nuvuk the Eskimos pursued swimming ducks in kayaks until they became exhausted by diving and were drowned.

The only fish that is regularly caught is the salmon trout: on the other hand there are such large quantities of it that, in places, it is of great economic importance; there are several species but the methods of catching them are the same.

From the ice. When the fresh waters freeze over in the autumn, salmon fishing goes on through holes in the ice on ​Image missingFig. 38.Fishing gear. the freshwater lakes. The implements used are: the salmon spear (kakivaq). Fig. 36 is a salmon spear from Ponds Inlet. The shaft is of two pieces scarfed together and is widened out at the fore end, in which the middle prong is inserted in a groove in the middle of one side and held in by lashings of sinew-thread and two wire windings. The side prongs are of antler and are fastened by three cross-lashings of sinew-cord and two iron nails. The barbs are of iron, inserted in the side prongs; one of them has a reinforcing lashing of sinew-thread. Total length 2.29 m.

Fig. 37 (Itibdjeriang) is the fore end of a salmon spear with side prongs of musk ox horn, a material that is both stronger and more elastic than antler; the length of the side prongs is 30 cm.

A third salmon spear from Repulse Bay with side prongs of musk ox horn is 2.79 m long.^[55] Sometimes a salmon harpoon is used in stead of the salmon spear; a head (Pingerqalik) is seen in Fig. 39 a.

The salmon decoy (eqaluijaq). Fig. 38.1 (Aivilingmiut) consists Image missingFig. 39.Salmon harpoon and decoy. 1 : 2. of a roughly carved fish in ivory, 5.1 cm long, with mouth, eyes and tail fins; it is pierced with two horizontal holes in which hang short strings, both ending in a caribou front tooth, and one vertical hole, through which the line runs; the line, which is of plaited sinew-cord, is 1.98 m long and has at the end a brass sinker, 2.3 cm long; the other end is fastened to the thin end of a wooden rod, 36 cm long. A salmon decoy from Itibdjeriang consists of a wooden handle, 35 cm long, with a unilateral knob at the rear end, a line of plaited sinew-cord 1.26 m long, and a bone fish, 3.5 cm long, with no mouth but having eyes of lead inserted, two small pieces of bone ​hanging on cords and a lead ball as a sinker. The collection includes other 13 salmon decoys without lines and handles; they are all of ivory, roughly carved, their lengths varying from 2½ to 7 cm. Only one (Fig. 39 b) from Repulse Bay, is more carefully executed, slender, 6.4 cm long, pierced by a large, horizontal hole, with two dorsal fins, pectoral fins, ventral fins and anal fins. Lyon^[56] mentions a salmon decoy of ivory with eyes of pyrites.

Fish hooks (qardjorsaq). Fig. 38.3 (Iglulik) has an iron hook with barb (a store article), inserted in a shank of ivory, in which it is held by a short, thick wooden peg and a cross lashing of sinew-thread; the length of the hook is 4.5, that of the shank 5.6 cm. The line is of 3-ply sinew-thread. 1.90 cm long; the bent handle, of wood, is 25 cm long; it can be used for reeling up the line. A similar fish. hook, but without a barb on the hook, is figured by Parry.^[57]

The ice scoop (ilaut). Fig. 38.2 (Iglulik) is a wooden handle and a scoop of musk ox horn. held together by a sinew-thread lashing through two holes in the upper end of the scoop. At one place the scoop has cracked and has been repaired with sinew-thread. Total length 59 cm. Two other ice-scoops. from Iglulik and Qajûvfik, are only 5–6 cm wide.^[58]

The ice pick (tûk) is a wooden shaft, 1½–2 m long, with at one end an iron chisel, now most frequently bought from the store; before the introduction of iron, ivory or antler were used. The butt end of the shaft is thick, partly to give more weight, partly to prevent it from splitting easily.

The method of fishing nowadays is a follows: A hole about 40 × 25 cm is hewn in the ice with the ice pick; if the ice is thicker than 20–30 cm the hole must be made bigger. At this hole the fisherman sits down with his back to the wind; with the left hand he moves the decoy up and down in the water with short, regular jerks at about a second's interval. The salmon spear has been inserted obliquely into the hole and rests against the edge. When a salmon approaches, attracted by the supposed fish, the decoy is drawn upwards; the salmon will then follow it and, when it has come up high enough it is struck with the spear; it is then pierced by the middle prong and held by the barbs of the elastic side prongs; it is drawn up, shaken off the spear and killed, the spine being cut behind the head with a knife that is stuck into the ice beside the hole, or it is given a blow behind the head with the shaft of the spear, etc. The ice scoop is used for keeping the hole clear of pieces ​of ice, new ice or drifting snow. If the snow is drifting thickly a sheltering wall of snow is sometimes built on the windward side of the hole.

Fig. 40.Sketches of salmon weirs.

When the whole family goes fishing, a sufficient number of salmon spears is often lacking. In such cases the women often fish with a hook. A piece of salmon belly skin is then used at bait, and is so net on the hook that it makes the latter rock when the line is drawn up and down. Sometimes, however, both spear and hook are used together. Hooks are also used to catch quite small salmon, which do not bite but are caught in the side by the hook.

Fig. 41.Salmon weir, Kûk.

Nest fishing often gives comparatively good catches; it is pursued in October when the females have laid their eggs and are guarding them and the males come to spawn. The nests (iglerit), a group of flat stones on the bottom, are found and the males which arrive are speared with the salmon spear, which often must be lengthened by one or two rods; frequently there are two men, one of them lying on watch at the hole while the other directs the spear according to signs from the man at the hole; the female must not be killed, as fishing at that spot would be at an end.^[59]

Salmon fishing from the ice is an occupation which requires great patience; all the family must sit by the holes and fish from morning ​till night, often without catching more than just sufficient to keep them from starving. Lavoie,^[60] however, says, that the Eskimos at Saputit Lake, south of Admiralty Inlet, in the autumn of 1910 had so many salmon that they fed the dogs with them and that he could buy two to three hundred salmon for half a pound of tobacco.

This fishing is also carried on in spring, in June-July, when holes begin to appear in the ice covering of the lakes; it can also be pursued from drift-ice floes near the shore in summer. As an exception I saw a family in April, 1923, who had no dogs, living upon salmon fishing at Hall's Lake.

Fishing in open water. An important method of fishing in former times was at salmon weirs (saputit), which were built at river mouths just below the high-water mark; these were stone dams with one hole through which the fish could enter. The shape of these weirs varied a little at places. Fig. 41 shows one at Kûk, Southampton Island; one at Eqaluit, Arctic Sound, is said to be constructed · as Fig. 40.2, one at Anaularealing as Fig. 40. 1. At high water the salmon enter, but cannot get out at low water; they are then speared and strung by means of a trout needle (nuvit). Fig. 38.4 (Ponds Inlet) is a flat needle of ivory, 16.4 cm long, pierced by a hole some short distance from the middle; through this is the loop of a seal thong, 1.40 cm long, the other end of which carries a 10.7 cm toggle of ivory with transversal grooves. Another trout needle, from Iglulik, is of caribou leg bone, 12 cm long, with the hole a little posterior to the middle. A third one, from Iglulik, is large, wide, crude, of antler, with two barbs just indicated and the hole a little posterior to the middle; 17 cm long. The needle is pushed in under the gills and out through the back of the neck.^[61]

A fish-trap (qalut) was sometimes set in the weir; this was of baleen with the opening towards the dam; when the fish went inside to hide, they could not get out again. These traps have long been in disuse, however; it is two traps of this kind that are drawn in the salmon weir at Eqaluit.

Small salmon are sometimes taken in a fish noose^[62] (naperaut). a wooden stick at the end of which is a loop of thin baleen cord. one end of which is fastened to the stick, the other is loose and can be drawn tight. The loop is placed round the salmon and drawn to. Sometimes salmon are caught with the hook spear (niksik), which seizes it in the side. One of these, from Iglulik, consists of a wooden shaft, 50 cm long, with two brass mountings at the fore end and ​a powerful iron hook without barb, 8 cm long, 6 cm wide; the shaft seems to have been longer originally.

All these fishing methods in open water have now gone out of use and have been replaced by net fishing, which they have learned from the Europeans, and they buy their nets from the store.

Salt-water fish are hardly ever caught. Lyon^[63] says that children now and then catch caplins in pools left by high water. At Ponds Inlet some fjord cod and sea scorpions are taken now and then.