DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE NAVY DEPARTMENT TO THEMSELVES AND TO THE CONTROLLING BODIES. [To face p. 121.
Chapter X
The Navy
By Rear-Admiral Saito, Vice-Minister of the Navy
Before describing the present state of the Japanese navy, it may be perhaps worth while to recall how warships of Western style have been introduced into Japan.
In 1635 the Tokugawa Administration forbade the building of any vessels large enough to cross the ocean, and no vessel having more than one mast was allowed. In 1838, however, the Mito clan, picking up some necessary information from a Dutchman—the Dutch were the only foreign traders who were allowed to come to Nagasaki until after the commercial treaty was made with the United States of America—built the first ship on foreign model ever constructed in Japan. Although this ship was completed and named Hachimanmaru, it was never allowed to be used.
After the visit of the American men-of-war in 1853, the Tokugawa Administration permitted the building of large ships, and at the same time ordered from Holland, through their trading agents, one steam corvette, one sailing corvette, with auxiliary steamers, and steamers of different sizes; but these vessels did not arrive in Japan, owing to the troubles existing in Europe at that time.
In 1854 a two-masted ship, the Howomaru (length 132 feet, beam 30 feet), was built at Uraga, on an English model; and at about the same time two more were built, one at Tokyo, the other at Satsuma, both of which were planned on European models.
At the time of the Crimean War a Russian sloop was wrecked on the coast of Japan, and permission was given that Japanese workmen might be employed in the repairing of the vessel; this gave an opportunity to the Japanese to learn some practical working and knowledge of naval architecture of Western style.
In 1855 His Majesty the King of Holland presented a steam corvette to the Tokugawa Shogun, which was named the Kanko Kan. At this time the Japanese ensign ‘Hinomaru’ (the sun or a red ball on a white ground) was introduced, and has been used as the national flag ever since.
Subsequently the naval school was established at Nagasaki by the Tokugawa Shogun Administration, and instruction in naval matters was given there by Dutch naval officers. The students for admission to this school were appointed by the Tokugawa Administration, and also selected by different clans. Another naval training school was organized at Tokyo (Yedo), with the Kankomaru as a training-ship, and employing both Dutch and English officers as instructors. Some new ships were built at Nagasaki and two ships were bought abroad, one of which, named the Kanrinmaru, afterwards (1860) made a cruise to San Francisco, manned by Japanese officers and crew under Captain Katsu (the late Count Katsu).
In 1857 Her Majesty Queen Victoria presented a steam yacht to the Tokugawa Shogun, and it was named the Hanrio Kan.
In this way the navy of the Tokugawa Administration was slowly gathered together and organized, and the list of ships in 1867, just before the Restoration, was as follows:
Then came the war of the Restoration, and most of the ships of the Tokugawa Administration, except the ironclad Kotetsu (old Stonewall Jackson), led by Admiral Yenomoto (the Rebel Chief), fled to Yezo Island (Hokkaido) and fought a battle at Hakodate (before the Battle of Hakodate the rebels lost some of their best ships in storms, etc.), which resulted in the total destruction of the rebel fleet.
After the war of the Restoration the clans in possession of warships presented them to His Majesty’s new Government, and the Imperial navy was formed and organized in 1869–1870. In 1872 the list of ships of the Imperial navy was as follows:
List of the War Vessels of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Fifth Year of Meiji, 1872.
The Imperial Japanese navy had experienced, before the war with China, several minor engagements in which single ships were employed, or small expeditions such as the following:
The Formosan Expedition of 1874.
The Bombardment and capture of Yeisojo in Corea by H.I.M.S. Unyo in 1875.
The Satsuma Rebellion in 1877.
In 1894–1895 the Imperial navy saw active service in the Chino-Japanese War, the most noted engagements of which were:
The opening engagement off Asan, Corea; the Battle of the Yalu; the torpedo-boat attack at Wei-hai-wei; the occupation of the Pescadores, Takao, and Amoin.
The list given below shows the strength of the Japanese navy at the time of the war with China.
War Vessels of the Imperial Japanese Navy at the End of the Twenty-Sixth Year of Meiji, 1893.
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE JAPANESE AND CHINESE FLEETS ENGAGED AT THE BATTLE OF THE YALU.
[To face p. 129.
Early Educational Measures.
The first important step taken with regard to the Japanese Imperial navy was the establishment of a Naval College in Tokyo; and in 1873 the Japanese Government, with the consent of the British Government, employed British naval officers and men as instructors in the college.
The list of instructors was as follows:
Commander (now Admiral) A. L. Douglas, R.N.
Commander C. W. Jones, R.N.
Lieutenant C. W. Baillie, R.N.
Chief Engineer F. W. Sutton, R.N.
Engineer T. S. Gissing, R.N.
Assistant Engineer W. J. Harding, R.N.
Five warrant officers.
Six petty officers.
Sixteen seamen.
These instructors were engaged for a term of three years, some returning at the end of the first term, others remaining for another three years.
In 1876 Commander L. P. Willan, R.N., Lieutenant T. H. James, R.N., Engineer W. Jad, R.N., and some warrant and petty officers were engaged as instructors for the training-ships cruising abroad. Their services were ended in 1879–1882. The number of cadets in the Naval College during the same period was from 250 to 300, including the engineer cadets. A class of from 20 to 45 cadets was sent out to cruise every year.
The system of education was thorough and substantial, and has formed the backbone of the present navy. Naval education in other branches was carried on also during these years, surgeons, paymasters, etc., having their own schools and foreign instructors.
The Naval Administration.
At first, after the Restoration, the Imperial army and navy were controlled by one department; but in 1872, in the process of reorganization, they were made separate and independent departments of the Government.
The management and control of the Imperial navy is carried out under the direction of the Minister of Marine, who is appointed from the flag officers of the active list. The Minister of the Marine, being a member of the Cabinet, is directly responsible to the Emperor for all actions of the Ministry of Marine. He acts in all naval matters concerning the movements of ships, schemes of mobilization, etc., in consultation with the chief of the Admiralty Staff Department.
The Admiralty Staff Department is independent of the Ministry of Marine, its chief being under the direct control of H.I.M. the Emperor.
To avoid a long explanation a table is here inserted which shows the organization and the relative positions of all the officers of the Imperial navy.
Naval Stations and Dockyards.
The coast of the empire is divided into five naval districts, and the headquarters of each district is placed at the chief naval port of that district, and is called Chinjufu (naval station). Headquarters of the 1st naval district are at Yokohama; of the 2nd, Kure; of the 3rd, Sasebo; of the 4th, Maizuru; of the 5th, Muroran.
The above naval stations, with the exception of Muroran, have dockyards and ordnance depots supplied with all necessary stores. There are also the following secondary naval stations where small repairs of ships and ordnance can be undertaken:
Takeshiki naval station (Tsushima Islands).
Bake naval station (Pescadores Islands).
Ominate torpedo division (Bay of Awemori).
Yokosuka dockyard being the only dockyard which was established at the time of the Tokugawa Administration in 1864, all others having been constructed since 1885, a description of it is of interest.
Yokosuka dockyard covers upwards of seventy acres of ground with its docks, ships, factories, workshops, and storehouses. For the construction of the different parts of ships, engines, etc., there are drawing rooms, pattern shops, iron and brass foundries, shops with machinery for bending, shaping, and piercing steel plates, machine, boiler and copper shops, smithies and forging shops—the largest steam-hammer installed being of twenty tons; also several carpenter shops and boat-making houses with storehouses for shipbuilding material.
There are four docks, two of which are capable of taking first-class battleships, and the number of workmen varies from 4,000 to 6,000, according to the amount of work being carried on.
The Yokosuka ordnance depot and stores are in the adjoining bays, and cover some sixty acres of ground exclusive of magazines, etc.
The naval arsenal at Kure, being the largest and most important one, gives a good idea of the ordnance works now existing. The foundation was laid in 1894, at the time of the war with China, and the arsenal covers upwards of a hundred acres of ground. It manufactures naval guns and projectiles of all sizes up to 12 inches, as well as gun-mountings. The principal shops of the arsenal are pattern and carpenter shops, steel and brass foundries, forging shops—the largest hydraulic press being of 4,000 tons—boring, turning, and finishing shops, tempering and shrinking pits, gun-mounting shops, machine shops, projectile and cartridge-case shops, torpedo and submarine mine shops, laboratories, stores, proving butts, etc. A plant for making armour plate is now being erected, comprising several open-hearth furnaces, gas-producers, forges containing a 10,000-ton hydraulic press and rollers, etc., machine shops, cementation house, drawing rooms, stores, etc.
Personnel.
For the fiscal year ending 1902 the numbers of officers and men voted for the Imperial Japanese navy were as follows:
Officers of the naval reserve, 170; warrant officers, 108; petty officers and men, 6,343.
The officers of the Imperial navy are divided into two classes—the executive naval officers and the officers, the latter ranking the same as executive naval officers.
The executive naval officers are Admirals, Captains, Commanders, Lieutenants, Sub-lieutenants, midshipmen, naval cadets, gunners, and boatswains.
The officers holding the relative ranks are engineers, medical officers, paymasters, ordnance engineers, naval constructors, hydrographical engineers, carpenters, and bandmasters.
Marine infantry and artillery were also organized at first, but have been abolished since 1876.
Executive Officers.
In the Imperial Japanese navy the naval cadets are appointed by competitive examination, which is open to the sons of all Japanese subjects. The entrance examination is held, at present, in nineteen of the principal towns of the country, under the supervision of the superintendent of the Naval College. The number of cadetships available for the year having been previously gazetted by the Minister of the Marine, applications are made to the superintendent of the Naval College through the local authorities within the specified limit of time. A candidate must not be under sixteen or over twenty years of age. A candidate who has passed the course of the Middle School is examined in mathematics, Japanese composition, English and Chinese; but a candidate who has not passed through the Middle School is examined in the following subjects: Japanese composition, mathematics, English, Chinese, geography, history, physics, chemistry, and drawing; also, if the candidate desires, in French, German, or Russian.
Successful candidates become naval cadets and join the Naval College at Yetajima, on the Inland Sea near the Kure naval station. The travelling money to the college is paid, and at the college everything is provided by the Government.
The cadets remain in the Naval College three years, and are instructed in seamanship, navigation, higher mathematics, English, physics, chemistry, gunnery, and torpedoes, steam engineering, etc. After having passed the final examination successfully they are appointed to the sea-going training-ships as midshipmen. At the end of eight months’ cruising the midshipmen are examined in what they have learnt on board, and then transferred to a commissioned ship, generally appointed among the ships of the squadron, and after four months, if favourably recommended by the Captain of the ship, are commissioned as Sub-lieutenants.
Promotion of naval officers is entirely by selection, and the list of candidates deserving that honour is decided upon by the Board of Admirals, which meets once a year. This Board is composed of eight or nine members, but when sitting to decide the list of promotions, all the Commanders-in-Chief of naval stations and the squadrons, with the senior officers of the different branches, such as engineers and medical corps, etc., are summoned, and the Minister of Marine takes the chair. Officers of the following rank who have been on duty for the specified number of years are eligible for nomination:
Naval officers are placed on the reserved list on account of age, ill-health, or disability. The age-limit of the several ranks is as follows:
Admirals at the age of 68; Vice-Admirals at the age of 63; Rear-Admirals at the age of 58; Captains at the age of 53; Captains, junior grade, at the age of 48; Commanders at the age of 45; Lieutenants at the age of 43; Lieutenants, junior grade, at the age of 38; Sub-lieutenants at the age of 38; chief gunners and boatswains at the age of 51; gunners and boatswains at the age of 48.
All officers are retired five years after being placed on the reserve list.
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE NAVAL EXPENDITURE OF JAPAN FROM 1871 TO 1901.
[To face p. 137.
Engineer Officers.
The appointment of engineer students is effected in the same manner as the appointment of naval cadets, but the age of candidates must not be under sixteen years of age or over twenty-one. The student joining the Naval College of Engineering remains three years and four months, going through a course of advanced mathematics, physics, chemistry, theory of the steam-engine, etc. They also receive practical training in the engineering workshops of the Yokosuka Dockyard, receiving instruction in iron shipbuilding, the working of marine engines and boilers, the practical use of the various instruments used in the engine-room, as well as in the construction and working of electric light, torpedo and gun machinery. The student successfully passing the final examination becomes a probationary Assistant Engineer of the navy, and is appointed to a sea-going training-ship, where he receives the practical training necessary for a man-of-war.
After eight months’ training on board, the students are examined and commissioned as Assistant Engineers, gaining the succeeding steps of promotion, as in the case of executive officers. The order of promotion is as follows: Engineer, Chief and Fleet Engineer, Inspector of Machinery, and lastly, Inspector-General of Machinery.
Medical Officers.
Candidates for the medical branch of the navy are required to pass a medical examination before being allowed to go up for the competitive examinations. The latter include medicine, surgery, science, and modern languages. Successful candidates become probationary Assistant Surgeons of the navy, and have to join the Navy Medical College for instruction. They remain there not less than one year, and if they pass the examination at the college successfully, are appointed to the hospitals of the different naval stations. After a certain period of time, if recommended favourably by the Superintendent of Hospitals, they are commissioned as Assistant Surgeons, gaining succeeding steps of promotion by selection. The successive grades of rank are Assistant-Surgeon, Surgeon, Staff and Fleet Surgeon, Surgeon-Inspector, and Surgeon-General.
Surgeons are also appointed from among the graduates of the Imperial Universities without the examination of science.
Paymasters.
Probationary assistant paymasters are selected by competitive examination after having successfully passed the required medical examination. Candidates must not be under twenty or over twenty-eight years of age. Successful candidates are appointed probationary assistant paymasters, and sent to the Paymaster Training School to receive a course of instruction there for eight months. At the end of that time they are, after examination, appointed to different commissioned ships to receive practical experience, and after four months of that training, if favourably recommended, become Assistant Paymasters, gaining succeeding steps of promotion by selection. Ranking is as follows: Assistant Paymasters, Paymasters, Chief, Staff, and Fleet Paymasters, Paymaster-Inspectors, and Paymaster-Generals.
Naval Constructors.
Every year a certain number of the naval architecture students from the Imperial University can make application to become students of the Navy. The expenses of the successful candidates are paid by the Navy, and on being graduated they are appointed Assistant Naval Constructors. The succeeding steps of promotion to Naval Constructor, Chief Inspector, and Inspector-General of Naval Construction, are gained by selection.
Ordnance Engineers.
Ordnance Engineers are appointed in the same manner as Naval Constructors. Naval officers and engineers can also enter this branch by special appointment if desired.
Hydrographical Engineers.
Students in this branch are taught in the Hydrographical Office the theory, as well as the practice, of surveys, etc., and, passing a successful examination, are appointed assistants. Assistants can acquire rank as high as that of Captain, junior grade. As this branch of the service can be performed by naval officers, the continuation of this department in the future is doubtful.
Warrant Officers.
The executive warrant officers are gunners and boatswains, gunners and torpedo-gunners having to have their qualification of gunnery or torpedo instructors before promotion. The non-executive branches holding relative ranks are engine-room artificers, bandmasters, carpenters, writers, and nurses. They are all selected from the petty officers of their respective bodies, having served at least two years at sea. A warrant officer of more than ordinary ability can, after six years of service, be promoted to be chief warrant officer, which ranks with Sub-lieutenant, and a chief warrant officer of long and meritorious service receives the rank of Lieutenant when placed on the reserve list.
Petty Officers and Men.
The petty officers and the men of the navy are divided in the same method as the warrant officers. Petty officers, with the exception of the writers, are all appointed from the men. There are three ranks in every branch—viz., the chief, or first, second, and third class petty officers. The men are enlisted in two classes, the volunteers and the conscripts; the first serve for eight years, the second for four. Both classes are allowed to renew their enlistment for terms of three years until the petty officers reach the age of forty-five, and the men that of forty years of age. Men appointed to be petty officers must serve six years from the date of appointment. The age of enlistment for volunteers is as follows:
Examinations for the promotion of petty officers and men are held twice every year, and they are eligible for the examination if they have served at sea as follows:
Petty Officers.
First-Class or Chief Petty Officer, one and a half years as second-class petty officer.
Second class, one year as third class petty officer.
Third class, one year as leading seaman.
Men.
Petty officers, leading seamen or first class men, able seamen or second-class men, and ordinary or third-class men, are examined in April and October.
Boys are examined in May and November.
Boys are trained for four months in the naval barracks at each naval station, and then sent to the sea-going training-ships for two months at least before being distributed among the ships of the squadron, etc.
From among able seamen and upwards to first-class petty officers inclusive a certain number of men are selected and examined to become seamen gunners and torpedo men, and the successful candidates are trained respectively at the gunnery and torpedo training stations at Yokosuka.
There are three different courses of instruction for seamen gunners, torpedo men, torpedo instructors, etc.:
(1) A course for seamen gunners; (2) a course for gunnery instructors; (3) recapitulatory, or short course.
Stokers, carpenters’ crews, and blacksmiths are given the same instruction as seamen, and are trained in the artificers’ training station according to their standing as seamen.
Further details of the instruction of other branches of petty officers and men are unnecessary, it being similar in principle to that given the seamen class.
The Naval Academy.
Advanced instruction for naval officers and engineers is given at the Naval Academy situated at Tokyo. It is conducted by a Rear-Admiral superintendent and several instructors and officers of different ranks, as well as a staff of professors.
The courses of instruction for officer students are divided as follows:
(1) Officers’ long course, two years; (2) officers’ short course, one year; (3) optional course, one year (nearly); (4) engineers’ long course, two years; (5) engineers’ short course, one year.
Officer students are nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of naval stations and squadrons, and by officers having similar authority, according to a notice given once a year by the Minister of Marine. A candidate for a long course must have had experience of sea duty for three years, be in good health, possess good judgment and a fair knowledge of his profession, and have a good record. Officer students for the optional course are not nominated, but make application, stating the subjects to be studied, and permission is granted them by the Minister of Marine if he sees no objection. Officer students of this class include Captains, Commanders, and Lieutenants.
The principal subjects taught at the academy for officers are: 1. Strategy. 2. Naval Tactics. 3. Military Tactics. 4. History of War. 5. Ordnance and Machinery, including Gunnery, Torpedoes, Naval Architecture, Steam-engines, Hydraulic and Electric Machinery. 6. Navigation, Meteorology, Coast Survey, etc. 7. Fortification. 8. Land Survey. 9. Navy and Military Administration. 10. International Law.
Optional Subjects.—Criminal Law of the Navy. Modern Languages. Photography.
The subjects for engineer officers are:
First Part.—1. Steam-engines. 2. Practical Engineering. 3. Designing of Engines and Machinery. 4. Naval Architecture. 5. Construction of Ordnance.
Second Part.—1. Theory of Steam Engineering. 2. Kinematics of Machinery. 3. Strength of Material. 4. Resistance and Propulsion. 5. Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Machinery. 6. Electricity and Electric Machinery and Apparatus.
Optional Subjects.—Criminal Law of the Navy. Modern Languages. Photography.
Officers choosing the optional course may select any of the subjects enumerated above, but the selection thereof must be made at the time of application.
The expenditure for the Japanese Imperial navy is divided into two classes: ordinary expenditure and extraordinary expenditure. The ordinary expenditure is for the maintenance of the navy, and the extraordinary expenditure for construction and new establishments.
Besides the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure, the navy has special funds for the shipbuilding and ordnance materials, which are divided among the dockyards and arsenals as follows:
Shipbuilding Material Fund.—Yokosuka, 1,060,000 yen; Kure, 860,000 yen; Sasebo, 860,000 yen. It is intended to increase this fund to 6,500,000 yen in aggregate.
Ordnance Fund.—Kure, 805,000 yen; Tokyo, 240,000 yen; Yokosuka, 142,000 yen; Sasebo, 135,000 yen; Shimose powder factory, 45,000 yen. This sum is to be increased to 3,000,000 yen in aggregate.
Conclusion.
The strength of the Imperial Japanese navy will be maintained in the following manner: In 1899 an Act was passed supplying 30,000,000 yen as a fund for the reconstruction of ships and torpedo-boats. This sum of money was placed in deposit at the Treasury, and increases by compound interest. This interest (saving always the 30,000,000 original) can, at the discretion of the Minister of Marine, and making it clear in the Budget, be expended on reconstruction works. In addition to this, from 1904 on, the fund is added to per annum according to the following proportions:
For protected ships, 3.9 per cent.; for unprotected ships, 5.4 per cent.; for torpedo-boats, 6.15 per cent. of the value (first cost) of a warship or torpedo-boat.
Ships and torpedo-boats which have been constructed for the following periods are removed from the list, and no funds are raised for them: Protected ships, twenty-five years; unprotected ships, eighteen years; torpedo-boats, fifteen years.[3]
