Florida's Great Hurricane/Chapter 2

RICHARD W. GRAY, meteorologist, has been in charge of the Miami Weather Bureau office since it was established in 1911. Prior to that time Miami was only a co-operative station, and for many years the records were kept and the signals hoisted by Dr. E. V. Blackman, who was performing such duties October 18, 1906, when the hurricane of that date struck the lower Keys and caused the loss of many lives and the destruction of much property on the Key West extension of the Florida East Coast railroad, then being built by Henry M. Flagler.

Dr. Blackman and other of the older residents who retain vivid recollections of that storm are still living in Miami. At that time Miami was populated by only a few thousand, and Miami Beach was a mangrove swamp. The storm tides flooded the island just as they did during the recent hurricane, and when the waters had receded heavy timbers and other wreckage had been lodged in the tops of the mangroves showing that they had been submerged with much force.

The greatest collective loss of life in the 1906 storm was caused by the sinking of a vessel loaded with workmen bound for the construction camps on the Keys. This was due in a large measure, if not entirely, to the stubborn unconcern of the captain, who sailed out of Biscayne Bay in the face of hurricane signals. In those days storm warnings were displayed on a tower near the Fair Building at the foot of Flagler Street, from which vantage they were readily seen by shipmasters and others engaged in shipping on the Bay. Some of the experiences of those early weather men, stationed at various points along the lower coast, were dramatic, even tragic, but it has fallen to the lot of few in the service to pass through such a weird night as that endured by Mr. Gray and his associates on September 17—18, 1926.

Mr. Gray remained at his post all night, and when the lights failed he had a most difficult task in watching and adjusting the delicate instruments in order to preserve a record of the storm. This he describes in his official report, which was transmitted to the Chief of the Weather Bureau under date of October 1, 1926.

The period of the storm from its origin in West Indian waters until it spent itself over the Texas plains, was September 14—20, seven ​days, centering over Miami during the early morning of September 18.

Mr. Gray describes it as "probably the most destructive storm in the history of the United States, in so far as property loss is concerned, and the depression of the barometer at Miami was the greatest ever recorded in any storm in the United States."

The importance of the barometer long has been recognized by seamen but it is possible that many landsmen still do not appreciate its invaluable service in forecasting the approach and proximity of storms. Even the amateur yachtsman knows better than to venture into open water when the mercury in his barometer is depressed. During the recent hurricane the oscillations of the mercury were so great that Mr. Gray found it almost impossible to adjust the vernier, which is an attachment by which infinitesimal readings are recorded. Here it may be interesting to indicate the difference between the mercurial and the aneroid barometer, because of references which appear in the official account, and for the further reason that interest in the significance of the barometer is increased because the pressure was lower in this storm than ever before has been recorded by the Weather Bureau in the United States.

The mercurial barometer was invented by Torricelli in Florence, 1643. It consists of a straight glass tube hermetically sealed at one end, filled with mercury and set in a small basin of the same fluid, the column of mercury having equal weight with the mean pressure of the atmosphere on an area equal to the base of the column. Fluctuations are indicated by inches and decimals; for smaller divisions a vernier is used. The aneroid barometer, a cylindrical affair, is the invention of a Frenchman, M. Vidi, and records atmospheric pressure by a finely fashioned mechanical combination which traces variations upon a chart known as a barograph. The width of the chart ordinarily is sufficient for the inked needle to trace its record across the sheet, zig-zagging up and down as fluctuations are received by the highly sensitized cylinders, and simultaneously transmitted to the needle, but during the early morning of September 18 the needle dipped as far down as it could go and then went clear off the sheet. Not only was it the lowest pressure ever recorded by any barometer in the United States, but it was so much lower than the previous lowest record that Mr. Gray, recognizing its significance, got such a hair raising thrill as seldom comes to any man, for he knew that the storm which was hurling roofs and smashing buildings outside was ​the fiercest and most intense that ever had visited these shores.

The weather observer was sitting in front of the barometer when the needle was seized with its conniptions, and his first concern was to get it back upon the chart, so that not a moment's scientific import of this catastrophic disturbance should be lost. This was managed shortly, though not without considerable inconvenience, for the lights were out and to adjust a hair spring instrument under such circumstances, working desperately against time, was far from an easy task. This was but one of the trying occurrences that transpired in the Weather Bureau office at Miami while the storm wrought its devastating furies outside.

Earlier in the night, when Mr. Gray received information that the hurricane was near and went to hoist signals, the force of the wind took him off his feet and let him down not too gently. He does not mention this in his report, but loyally gives credit to his assistant for courageous work in retrieving the top of the raingage that blew off in the midst of the storm, though the incident is not mentioned as heroic. It is proper that such matters be preserved in their true aspect, for there is no question among those who passed through the storm that any one risked his life who ventured out while missiles and heavy objects of many kinds were hurtling through the air with irresistible force.

Mr. Gray does well to call attention to the fact that most of those who perished, met their fate when they went out during the lull between 6 and 7 o'clock Saturday morning. Those who did this evidently were unacquainted with the action of hurricanes, which move in whirlwind form, blowing from one quarter with great force and shifting to another, sometimes the opposite direction. A lull comes while the wind is changing, and the uninformed gain the impression that the storm is over. Saturday morning the streets were filled with people curious to view the wreckage, but when the wind shifted it was more furious than before and did greater damage.

The official account is reproduced in the succeeding pages not only for its value as a true and carefully prepared record, but because it is a document throbbing with human interest. With the omission of superscription, date and signature, which for present purposes are superfluous, it follows:

The hurricane of September 14-20, which passed over Miami during the early morning of the eighteenth, was probably the most destructive storm in the history of the United States, in so far as ​property loss is concerned. The depression of the barometer at Miami was the greatest ever recorded in any storm in the United States.

The first information concerning the storm was received from the Central Office at 11:30 a. m. of the 14th. No vessels bound for the Bahamas left Miami after that date. Advisory messages relative to the intensity and progress of the storm were received at regular intervals from the 15th to the 17th inclusive, and these advices were given such wide distribution that it can be safely said that the entire population of the lower east coast of Florida were informed of the approach of the storm.

Northeast storm warnings were displayed, by order of the Central Office, at noon of the 17th. The afternoon newspapers published the warning, and it was otherwise disseminated by telephone and telegraph. From the early afternoon of the 17th until the wires were blown down, telephone calls at the Weather Bureau office were answered at the rate of two to three per minute. In addition to the telephone service from the Weather Bureau, the Miami Daily News kept a special telephone operator on duty to give information to those who did not succeed in getting telephone connection with the Weather Bureau. A representative of the News remained at the Weather Bureau office throughout the night of the 17th-18th and kept his paper informed of all available information until telephone connection was severed.

The message ordering hurricane warnings at 11 p. m. of the 17th was received at 11:16 p. m. The warning was displayed from the roof of the Federal Building at 11:25 p. m., and from the stormwarning tower at the City Docks, one and one-half miles from the Weather Bureau office, at midnight. Before leaving for the stormwarning tower, I gave the hurricane warning to the long distance telephone operator, who repeated it to the telephone exchanges at Homestead, Dania, Hollywood, and Fort Lauderdale. The warning was also telephoned to the chief dispatcher of the Florida East Coast Railroad, and several efforts were made to get telephone connection with Fowey Rock Lighthouse and the Coast Guard base at Fort Lauderdale. Telephone communication had not been interrupted, but the operator reported that repeated calls failed to get any response from Fowey Rock or the Coast Guard station.

Shortly after 10 p. m., I began to give out the information that the rapid fall of the barometer and the direction and increasing velocity of the wind indicated that the storm was rapidly approaching this coast, and that, unless it recurved to the east of Miami, winds ​of hurricane force might be expected. This information continued to be given by telephone until the receipt of the hurricane warning at 11:16 p. m. After that time, all persons calling by telephone or in person were informed of the display of hurricane warnings. Telephone communication with Hollywood and Miami Beach was severed between 1 a. m. and 2 a. m. and in Miami, between 2 a. m. and 3 a. m.

The hurricane came with great suddenness. Except for a moderate but steady fall of the barometer after 10 a. m. of the 17th, there were no unusual meteorological conditions to herald the approach of the storm. The wind velocity as late as 8 a. m. of the 17th was only 19 miles per hour, and the usual heavy rain that precedes a tropical storm did not set in until after midnight, by which time the wind was blowing a fresh gale. At 10 p. m. of the 17th, the barometer began to fall rapidly, and by midnight it had fallen .11 inch. From E midnight to 6:45 a. m., at which time the center of the storm passed over Miami, there was a precipitate fall at the rate of .28 inch per hour. Frequent readings of the mercurial barometer were made throughout the night to check the barograph trace. After 3 a. m., the oscillation of the mercury column in the barometer was as great as .10 inch, making it difficult to properly adjust the vernier. Shortly after 5:30 a. m., it was seen that the barograph pen would fall below the limits of the instrument, and I sat in front of the barograph and waited until the pen reached 28 inches, when it was raised .5 inch. The readjustment of the pen was made as quickly and accurately as was possible under the circumstances. The office was in total darkness, and the readjustment had to be made with the use of a flashlight. The correction to the barograph trace up to the time the pen was readjusted was .01 inch. The correction after readjustment and up to 8 a. m. was .05 inch, as determined by several readings of the mercurial barometer. From about 5:30 a. m. to 6:10 a. m., the barometer fell .40 inch and then remained stationary for 15 or 20 minutes. This was at the beginning of the lull in the wind that attended the arrival of the center of the storm. After the short stationary period, there was another rapid fall of .06 inch, and at 6:45 a. m., a reading of the mercurial barometer showed a pressure of 27.61 inches. The barograph pen fell to 27.54 inches. The master of the steamship Crudeoil, one of the few vessels that rode out the storm in Biscayne Bay, had his aneroid barometer adjusted at this office the day preceding the storm. His instrument recorded 27.59 inches. This reading requires a correction of .01 inch to reduce it to sea level, so that the corrected reading is 27.60 inches. After the passage of ​the center of the storm, the barometer rose even more rapidly than it had fallen, and by noon it had reached 29.30 inches.

The center of the storm passed over the central and southern parts of Miami. Over the extreme northern part of the city and and over the northern part of Miami Beach, the wind shifted from northeast to south, but there was no pronounced lull. At the Weather Bureau Office the wind fell to 10 miles per hour at 6:30. At the same time, the velocity at the Allison hospital, in the northern part of Miami Beach, was 80 miles per hour. Ten minutes before, the velocity had been 108 miles.

It will be necessary to describe the exposure of the anemometer at the Weather Bureau Office, in order that the low wind velocities recorded may be understood. The anemometer is located on the 3-story Federal Building, and is almost completely surrounded by buildings of 8 to 18 stories. One 15-story building is only 100 feet east-northeast of the anemometer. Another 17-story building is about 250 feet due east. The average velocity of northeast winds prior to the erection of these buildings was 1.44 times the average velocity of northeast winds from January to August, 1926. Since the completion of the walls of the 15-story building, within the last two months, there has been a still further reduction in the velocity of northeast winds. The multiple 1.4, however, had been used in correcting the velocities recorded during the first phase of the storm, when the wind was northeast.

The wind increased steadily from the northeast after 10 p. m. At 1:50 a. m., the anemometer recorded a velocity of 41 miles, indicating a true velocity of about 57 miles per hour. Telephone communication with Miami Beach ceased shortly before this time. By 2:35 a. m., the true velocity had increased to 60 miles per hour, and by 3 a. m., telephone service in Miami had ended. There was a steady increase in wind velocity from that time to 5 a. m. when the anemometer recorded a maximum velocity of 80 miles, indicating a true velocity of at least 115 miles per hour. The top of the raingage blew off at 3:42 a. m., and was recovered and replaced by Mr. C. S. Moseley, Jr., the assistant at this station. It was again blown off a few minutes later and lost. A part of it was found the next day on the roof of a nearby building. The electric light wires were blown down at 4 a. m., and observations during the remainder of the night were made with a flashlight, supplied by one of the visitors that spent the night in the Weather Bureau Office. Frequent flashes from fallen wires added to the fearful aspect of the elements. The instru ​ment shelter blew away between 4 a. m. and 5. a. m., landing in the street below and crashing into the automobile of Mr. Arthur Peavy, a Miami Daily News staff writer, who was on duty at the Weather Bureau Office. There was an abrupt decrease in the wind velocity between 6:10 a. m. and 6:15 a. m. when the center of the storm reached Miami. Many persons who had spent the night in downtown buildings rushed out to view the wreckage that filled the streets. I warned those in the vicinity of the Federal Building that the storm was not over and that it would be dangerous to remain in the open. The lull lasted 35 minutes, and during that time the streets became crowded with people. As a result, many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm. With the passage of the center of the storm, the wind shifted to southeast at 6.47 a. m. and immediately increased to gale force. A velocity of 50 miles was recorded at 7:55 a. m. and a velocity of 60 miles at 8:55 a. m. These recorded velocities are nearly 50 per cent less than the actual velocities. The wind shifted to southwest at 9 a. m. and continued from that direction until 6 a. m., with steadily diminishing force.

A Robertson anemometer on the roof of the Allison hospital, Miami Beach, connected with a Weather Bureau type triple register, made by Julien P. Friez & Son, recorded a velocity of 128 miles per hour at 7:30. The anemometer blew away at 8:12 a. m., at which time it was recording 120 miles per hour. The sheet containing the record will be forwarded to the Central Office.

The storm tide on the Miami side of Biscayne Bay was approximately eight feet, and reports indicate a similar tide at Miami Beach. The water front of Miami was flooded for two to three blocks back from the bay, and low parts of the city near the Miami River were also flooded. After the storm, the entire bay front section of Miami was strewn with boats ranging in size from small pleasure craft to large schooners. Some of the boats had been carried more than two blocks from the bay. Water rose in hotels and residences near the bay to a depth of three to five feet. Miami Beach was entirely inundated, and at the height of the tide, the ocean extended to Miami, three and one-half miles across Biscayne Bay. All streets near the ocean at Miami Beach were covered with sand to a depth of several feet, and in some places automobiles were entirely covered. The foundations of some buildings were washed out, allowing the buildings to collapse. The storm tide occurred with the shift of the wind to the east and southeast, following the arrival of the center of the storm. In the Miami River the tide came in the form of a bore that left a ​mass of wreckage from the boats that had sought safe anchorage.

The intensity of the storm and the wreckage that it left cannot be adequately described. The continuous roar of the wind; the crash of falling buildings, flying debris, and plate glass; the shriek of fire apparatus and ambulances that rendered assistance until the streets became impassable; the terrifically driven rain that came in sheets as dense as fog; the electric flashes from live wires have left the memory of a fearful night in the minds of the many thousands that were in the storm area.

The loss of life in the Miami district was 114. (After this report was written the number of dead from the storm was increased by one, making the total 115.) Many more are missing. Several thousand persons were injured, and 25,000 were without shelter after the storm.

The property loss in the greater Miami area has been estimated at $76,000,000. This does not include damage to house, office, and store furnishings. Approximately 4,725 homes were destroyed and 9,100 damages in the area extending from Fort Lauderdale to Miami.

Barograph trace at Miami during hurricane of September 18, 1926, reproduced from original trace. In the original record, the trace is broken, as it was necessary to raise the barograph 0.5 inch when it reached 28 inches, which is the limit of the barograph sheet. The reproduced trace has been made continuous, to better show the remarkable fall of the barometer.